
A J* 






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i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 

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f UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, f 



AN ' 

EXPOSITION 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

IN 

CONVERSATIONAL OR FAMILIAR LECTURES, 

CONTAINING 

A SYSTEMATIC ORDER FOR PARSING 

AN$ 

FALSE SYNTAX CORRECTED, 

AND 

WHY IT IS FALSE; 

ALSO, 

RULES FOR PARSING BY TRANSPOSITION, 

OBSERVATIONS ON LETTER WRITING 

AND 

COMPREHENSIVE LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND ELOCUTION. * 

DESIGNED FOR THOSE PERSONS WHO HAVE NOT HAD THE ADVANTAGE 

OF THIS BRANCH OF EDUCATION IN EARLY LIFE, AND ALSO 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 

BY GEORGE LITTLE, 



BALTIMORE: 

JAMES YOUNG, PRINTER. 

1841. 



o-1 



Entered according to the act of Congress in the year 1840, by Geo'rgf 
Little, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maryland. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From John C. S. Monkur, M. D. Professor of Institutes 
and Practice of Medicine, Washington University of 
Baltimore. 

Sir: — Having perused the manuscript, which contains 
the Lectures you intend to publish, on English Grammar, 
I can, with confidence, recommend them as a useful per- 
formance. You appear to have been particularly careful 
to avoid prolixity; and, at the same time, omitted nothing 
essential to a full comprehension of the subjects: this 
will render them more intelligible to the young student, 
as unnecessary minuteness, and too frequent repetition, 
only tend to embarrass and confuse him. 

I have no doubt but your publication will answer a 
good purpose, be a useful assistant to students in English 
Grammar, and receive from the public a liberal patronage. 
JOHN C. S. MONKUR, M. D. 

Capt. George Little. 



From David Ring, Esq. Principal of the East Baltimore 
Female Institute. 

Baltimore, Oct. 7, 1840. 
Sir: — I have examined with attention your work on 
English Grammar, and have no hesitation in expressing 
a favorable opinion of its merits. I feel ho doubt that, 
in publishing it, you will render a service to the commu- 
nity in general, and especially to that class of individuals, 
for whose use it is principally intended; I mean those 
who have passed the period of youth, without having 



IV RECOMMENDATIONS. 

acquired a sufficient knowledge of Grammar, and who 
are desirous of remedying, in this respect, the deficiencies 
of early instruction. To all such your book may be con- 
fidently recommended, as a valuable auxiliary in the lau- 
dable business of self-improvement. 

Wishing you success in your undertaking, I am yours 
respectfully, D. RING. 

Capt. George Little. 



From the Rev. John Smith, Pastor of the Seamerts Bethel, 
FelPs Point. 

Baltimore, Sept. 12, 1840. 

Dear Sir: — I have examined your system of "English 
Grammar," and am well convinced that the method you 
have adopted, the Lecture form, is among the best I have 
ever seen to impart a knowledge of the syntactical agree- 
ment, and government of the English language; especial- 
ly, to those who have not been favored with early instruc- 
tion, and take great pleasure in recommending it to the 
public. Respectfully yours, 

JOHN SMITH. 

Capt. George Little. 



INTRODUCTION. 



In presenting this work before the public, 
the author is aware, that he subjects himself, 
to the animadversions of the uncandid, as well 
as the criticisms of the learned. As to the 
former class, he is prepared to endure their 
censure, and to the latter, he begs leave to 
remark, that he does not claim any thing 
new or novel, in the syntactical agreement 
and government of language, or in definitions, 
rules, or the corrections of false syntax. 
Having for a long time, however, been per- 
suaded, that a large portion of the commu- 
nity, whose education has been limited in 
their youth, who sustain respectable relations 
in society, are now, from their circum- 
stances and condition unable to bestow 
as much time and labor as is necessary, in the 
acquisition of this science, in the ordinary 
method of teaching: He presents this work, 
to a candid public, new in its arrangement 
and plan, easy and familiar in its rules and 
examples, in lecture form, particularly 



6 

adapted, (he believes) to that portion of the 
community before mentioned. He has given 
an introductory lecture, comprising the de- 
finitions of every part of speech in order, 
and classed all their inflections, under one 
general head; and has given a series of ques- 
tions to be answered, to each distinct part of 
speech, thereby enabling the student to un- 
derstand promptly what he has to do with 
each; he has also abridged the rules of syn- 
tax, being convinced, that there are but a 
few rules necessary, for the purpose of speak- 
ing and writing the English language with 
propriety; a redundancy therefore, would 
only have a tendency to burthen the mind, and 
make the study dull, dry, and uninteresting. 
Care has been taken to make the phrase- 
ology easy, and the examples plain and fa- 
miliar, and as this work is specially intended 
for adult persons, he has omitted orthogra- 
phy, believing they are already acquainted 
with it. There will also be found in the 
latter part of this work, an example illustra- 
tive of every rule of syntax; also examples 
of false syntax corrected, and why it is false; 
also rules for parsing by transposition: the 
conjugation of verbs, and a list of regular 
verbs, etc.: also, a lecture on punctuation- 



It will be seen, that the object of this work f 
is not to diffuse a knowledge of the philoso- 
phy of language; this has been studiously 
avoided; believing it only to be necessary, 
to the classical scholar: it is specifically de- 
signed, however, for the use of those persons, 
whose avocation places them beyond the 
reach of intense application: he has been a 
considerable length of time engaged in teach- 
ing the English language by lecture, or oral 
communication, and experience has satisfac- 
torily demonstrated the fact, that the science 
of Grammar, taught in this way, (say in form 
of lecture) has been acquired with much 
more facility, than in the ordinary method 
of teaching: he has therefore arranged this 
system of Grammar, in lectures, having stu- 
died brevity, in all its parts^ and believes af- 
ter a careful examination, of his arrangement, 
it will be found to answer, the specific object 
intended, and merit the patronage of a gene- 
rous public. 

GEORGE LITTLE. 



INTRODUCTORY LECTURE. 



Allow me to give you the introductory 
lecture on English Grammar. 

English Grammar teaches the art of speak- 
ing and writing the English language with 
propriety. It is divided into four parts, viz: 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Pro- 
sody. 

Orthography teaches the nature and pow- 
er of letters, and the just method of spelling 
words. Etymology treats of the different 
sorts of words, their various modifications, 
and their derivations. Syntax teaches the 
agreement and government of language. 
Prosody teaches the just method of pronun- 
ciation, comprising accent, quantity, empha- 
sis, pause, and tone, with the laws of versifi- 
cation. 

Orthography, being the first in order, we 
shall omit, believing that you already possess 
a knowledge of this branch of Grammar. 

We shall now embrace the second part of 
Grammar, viz: etymology: and allow me to 
observe, that the whole list of words in the 
English language, amount to about seventy 



o* 



10 

thousand; perhaps, there are about forty 
thousand in common use; in all these words, 
we have but ten parts of speech, viz. Noun, 
Verb, Adjective, Pronoun, Preposition, Ad- 
verb, Conjunction, Interjection, Participle, 
and Article. You will perceive the necessi- 
ty of having a correct knowledge of each, as 
every word we speak or write, must be one 
or the other, of those parts of speech: when 
you are able to surmount this difficulty, you 
will pursue your future studies with pleasure. 

We shall now proceed to give the defini- 
tions of each part of speech, agreeably to the 
order laid down. 

The noun is first in order. What is 
the meaning or use of the word noun? I 
answer, a noun is the name of anything that 
exists, anything you can see, or of which you 
can think; as, James, Baltimore, gratitude, 
field, house, lake, river, mountain, city. All 
the preceding words, therefore, are nouns. 

The verb is next in order. What is the 
meaning or use of this part of speech? I an- 
swer, a verb is a word that signifies action, 
suffering, or being; as, walk, run, stand, sit, 
&c. You may readily distinguish verbs, by 
their definition. 

The adjective is next in order. What is 



11 

the meaning or use of this part of speech? I 
answer, it is a word added to a noun, to ex- 
press its quality; as, a black chair, a ivhite 
chair, a good chair, a strong chair; all the 
words, therefore, immediately preceding the 
noun, are adjectives, used to express the qual- 
ity of the chair: thus you may readily distin- 
guish this part of speech. 

The pronoun is next in order. What is 
the meaning or use of the word pronoun? I 
answer, it is a word used to avoid the too 
frequent repetition of the noun, or used in- 
stead of a noun; as, I walked a mile, John 
improves, because he studies: Here the pro- 
noun / personifies the person speaking, and 
the pronoun he is used to avoid the repeti- 
tion of the noun John. This part of speech 
is known by the list. See lecture on pro- 
noun. 

The preposition is next in order. What 
is the meaning or use of this part of speech? 
I answer, it is a word which serves to con- 
nect words, and show the relation between 
them: as, she went from Baltimore to Phila- 
delphia — He is above a mean action: men 
are supported by industry. In the first ex- 
ample, from and to are prepositions, above , 
in the second, and by 9 in the third, shewing 



12 

the relation they sustain to words in each of 
the sentences. This part of speech is known 
by the list. See lecture on preposition. 

The adverb is next in order. What is 
the meaning or use of the adverb? I answer, 
it is a part of speed l joined to a verb, an 
adjective,, a participle, and sometimes to an- 
other adverb, to express some circumstance 
respecting it: as, the boy runs srviftly: he is 
a most fortunate man; a horse approaching 
gently: the man speaks very correctly. In 
these examples, the words swiftly, most, gen- 
tly, very and correctly are adverbs. 

The conjunction is next in order. What 
is the meaning or use of this part of speech? 
I answer, conjunctions serve to connect words 
and sentences, so as out of two or more to 
make one: as, four and three are seven: John 
and Thomas will not improve unless they 
study. In the first example the copulative 
conjunction and, connects words; in the se- 
cond, disjunctive, the conjunction unless 
makes the simple sentence, a compound one. 
There are two kinds of conjunctions, viz. 
copulative and disjunctive; they are known 
by the list. See lecture on conjunction. 

The interjection is next in order. What 
is the meaning or use of this part of speech? 



13 

I answer, interjections are words thrown in 
between the parts of a sentence, to express 
some passion or emotion of the speaker: as, 
O vice! how despicable thou art. Alas! 
poor Yorrick. Lo! I come. In these ex- 
amples O, alas, and lo, are interjections. 
They are known by the list. See lecture on 
interjection. 

The participle is next in order. What is 
the meaning or use of the participle? I an- 
answer, a participle is a word derived from 
a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, 
and also of an adjective: as, writing, reading, 
teaching, ivalking, running, flying: All these 
words are participles, derived from the verbs, 
write, read, teach, walk, run, fly, fyc. 

The article is the tenth and last part of 
speech. What is the meaning of this part 
of speech? I answer, an article is a word 
prefixed to nouns, to limit their signification: 
as, a vineyard, an olive branch, the gentle- 
man. A or an is the indefinite article, and 
the is called the definite. Allow me to re- 
mark, that in the foregoing lecture, I have 
given you the definitions of the several parts 
of speech, with examples for each; neverthe- 
less, much depends upon the judgment of 
the student, as one word, by changing its re- 



14 

lation or situation, may become four or five 
distinct parts of speech. Instantly commit 
this lecture to memory, and when you can 
answer every question, you will be prepared 
to prosecute your future studies, with great 
facility. 



QUESTIONS ON THE INTRODUCTORY 
LECTURE. 

1 . What is English Grammar? 

2. How many parts does it contain? 

3. Name them? 

4. Explain orthography? 

5. Explain etymology? 

6. Explain syntax? 

7. Explain prosody? 

8. Why do we omit orthography? 

9. What part of Grammar is etymology? 

10. How many words are there in the 
English language? 

11. How many are there in common use? 

12. How many parts of speech are there? 

13. Give a list of each part of speech? 

14. Why is it requisite to know each part 
of speech? 

15. Give the meaning of a noun? 

16. Name the examples of a noun? 

17. Give the meaning of the verb? 

18. Name the examples of the verb? 



15 

19. Give the meaning of the adjective? 

20. Name the examples of the adjective? 

21. Give the meaning of the pronoun? 

22. Name the examples of the pronoun? 

23. What words in the examples are pro- 
nouns? 

24. How are the pronouns known? 

25. Give the meaning of the preposition? 

26. Name the examples? 

27. Name the prepositions in those exam- 
ples? 

28. How are the prepositions known? 

29. Give the meaning of the adverb? 

30. Name the examples? 

31. Name the adverbs in those examples? 

32. Give the meaning of the conjunction? 

33. Name the examples? 

34. Name the conjunctions in those exam- 
ples. 

35. Which is the copulative conjunction? 

36. Which is the disjunctive? 

37. How many kinds of conjunctions are 
there? 

38. How are conjunctions known? 

39. Give the meaning of the interjection? 

40. Name the examples? 

41. How are interjections known? 

42. Give the meaning of the participle? 



16 

43. Name the examples? 

44. From what verbs are those participles 
derived? 

45. Give the meaning of the article? 

46. Name the examples? 

47. Name the article in those examples? 

48. Which is the definite article? 

49. Which is the indefinite article? 

50. From whence arises the difficulty of 
ascertaining correctly, the different parts of 
speech? 



LECTURE ON THE NOUN. 

Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
noun, with its several properties, qualities, 
and inflexions. 

A noun is the name of any thing that ex- 
ists, that you can see, or of which you can 
think: as, Philadelphia, perseverance, bene- 
volence. I would observe, that the noun is 
the most important part of speech; more than 
one half of the words in our language, are 
nouns. I will give you a rule by which you 
may instantly distinguish this part of speech; 
it will make sense of itself, without the ad- 
dition of any other word: as, temperance, 
patience, Godliness. 



17 

Permit me to remark, that nouns are divi- 
ded into two sorts; proper and common. 

I will proceed to explain proper nouns. 
Proper nouns are appropriated to individuals, 
persons, places, things: Thomas is a proper 
noun, a name given to an individual person: 
Baltimore is a proper noun, the name of an 
individual city: perseverance is a proper 
noun, the name of an individual thing. Per- 
mit me to say, that any word appropriated to 
an individual, is a proper noun. 

Common nouns are next in order. A com- 
mon noun is the name of a sort or species of 
things: as, mountain, river, lake, city, &c. 
Washington is a proper noun, a name given 
to an individual city; but city is a common 
noun; a name given to all cities, and common 
to all. Thus you may readily distinguish 
proper and common nouns. 

There are also collective nouns, or nouns 
of multitude, signifying many in one; as, 
assembly, audience, congregation, &c. There 
are, also, participial orjverbal nouns. Nouns 
ending in ing derived from verbs, are called 
participial or verbal nouns: as, by the read- 
ing of which, by the writing of which. In 
these examples, reading and writing, are par- 
ticipial or verbal nouns, derived from the 
verbs, to read, and to write. 
3 



18 

Allow me to remark, that to nouns belongs 
gender, number, person, and case: these are 
the qualities of nouns. Gender is the first 
in order. Gender is the distinction of sex. 
Nouns are said to have three genders: mas- 
culine, feminine, and neuter. The mascu- 
line gender, denotes males: as, gentleman, 
boy. The feminine gender denotes females, 
as, lady, girl. The neuter gender denotes 
things without a sex: as, city, river, house, 
field, &c. Some nouns naturally neuter are 
converted into the masculine and feminine 
genders: as, when we speak of the sun, we 
say, he is setting; or, of a ship, she sails well. 
There are also nouns, distinguished by a 
common gender, viz. A single word, that 
may express both sexes j as, the people of the 
city: the parents of the young gentleman; 
here, people, and parents, may express both 
sexes; consequently, they are nouns, of the 
common gender. Thus you may readily 
distinguish the gender of nouns. 

Person is next in order. Person is that 
property of the noun or pronoun, which 
varies the verb, and represents the person 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; nouns 
are said to have two persons, second and third. 
Nouns are always in the second person when 
spoken to; as, James, I am happy to see you- 



19 

Nouns are always in the third person, when 
spoken of: as, James is studying Grammar. 

Allow me to remark, that nouns can never 
be in the first person, except they are placed 
by apposition, with the first of the pronouns: 
as, I the speaker, 

Number is next in order; number is the 
distinction between one and many. Nouns 
are said to have two numbers; the singular 
and the plural. The singular number ex- 
presses but one object: as, gentleman, lady. 
The plural number, expresses more than one 
object: as, gentlemen, ladies. I would here 
remark, that the plural number of nouns is 
generally formed, by adding s, or es to the 
singular: as, boy, boys, hatch, hatches. 
Some nouns are always in the singular num- 
ber: as, pride, envy, anger, gold, silver. 
Some nouns are always in the plural number: 
as, bellows, scissors, riches, pains. Some 
nouns may be in both numbers: as, deer, 
sheep, swine, &c. Allow me to remark, that 
nouns of science, are generally placed in the 
plural number: as, mathematicks, metaphy- 
sicks, hydraulicks, &c. The word news is 
considered a singular noun. 

Case is next in order. Permit me to re- 
mark, that, to give the true cases of nouns and 
prpixquns., in every situation, is the most im- 



20 

portant part of Grammar: you will, therefore, 
no doubt, perceive the necessity of attending 
carefully to the following expositions on the 
cases of nouns. 

Case means the different situation or 
position, which nouns and pronouns have, in 
relation to other words. Nouns have three 
cases: nominative, possessive, and objective. 
The nominative case denotes an actor or sub- 
ject of the verb, and always does something: 
as, James spells, John reads, William writes: 
&er£,*James,John, andjWilliam, are the actors; 
consequently, they are in the nominative 
case, to the verbs spells, reads, and writes. 

If you wish to ascertain whether a noun is 
in the nominative case, ask yourself the ques- 
tion, what it does, or suffers; if it does any- 
thing, or expresses an actor, it must be in 
the nominative case: as, what does James 
do? You perceive he spells: consequently, 
James must be in the nominative case to the 
verb spells. You perceive in the preceding 
examples, the verb is the next word to the 
nominative case; sometimes, however, a 
number of words may intervene, before you 
come to the verb, but you will never pass a 
period: every complete sentence, therefore, 
must have a verb expressed or understood: 
I will give you an example: That lady of 



21 

great beauty and merit, possessing every ac- 
complishment that could make her agreeable, 
and wealth in abundance, married a man, 
obscure in his origin, ordinary in his appear- 
ance and vicious in his habits. Now, if you 
wish to ascertain the case of the noun lady, 
ask if she did anything: you perceive the lady 
married: consequently, she is the actor or 
agent, and must be In the nominative case to 
the verb married. I would observe, that al- 
though the nominative case generally pre- 
cedes the verb, yet, it sometimes follows 
the verb: as, is there a lady? To ascer- 
tain the case of lady, you ask who? or 
what is? You perceive the lady is, there- 
fore she is in the nominative case to the verb 
is. Thus you may readily distinguish the 
nominative case. 

The possessive case Is next in order* 
The possessive case denotes the possessor 
of something, and is followed by an apostro- 
phe, and frequently the letter s: as, John's' 
hat; here your perceive, John is in the pos- 
sessive case; he is the possessor of the hat, 
with an apostrophe and the letter s, follow- 
ing: therefore, nouns or pronouns signifying 
possession, are governed by the nouns they 
possess, or the following noun. 

The objective case is next in order.. The 



22 

objective case expresses the object of an ac- 
tion, or of a relation, and generally follows 
an active verb, an active participle, or a pre- 
position: therefore, nouns or pronouns in the 
objective case, are governed by active verbs, 
active participles, and prepositions. The 
first example I shall give is that of a noun in 
the objective case, governed by an active 
verb: as, I believe John. Here John, is a 
noun in the objective case; believe, is an ac- 
tive verb: Rule: Active verbs govern the 
objective case. The second example is a 
noun in the objective case, governed by an 
active participle; as, introducing John: John 
is a noun in the objective case, governed by 
the active participle introducing, which has 
the same government as the verb introduce, 
from which it is derived. The third exam- 
ple is a noun in the objective case, the ob- 
ject of a relation, governed by a preposition: 
as, I went with John. Here, John is a noun 
in the objective case, the object of a relation, 
and governed by the preposition with. To 
make this perfectly plain and familiar, I will 
review the cases of nouns: is it not easy to 
perceive, if I say, John writes; he is the ac- 
tor and does something? consequently, the 
noun John must be in the nominative case; 
but, if I say, John's hat, he is the possessor 



23 

and has an apostrophe and the letter s, affix- 
ed to John; consequently, the noun John must 
be in the possessive ease. But, if I say, I 
believe John, he must be the object of my 
belief; consequently, John is in the objective 
case. You will no doubt understand these 
explanations; I have endeavored to make 
them intelligible and plain, and as they are 
of great importance, you must review them 
carefully, before you proceed with the varia- 
tions on the cases of nouns. 

Allow me to observe, that although nouns 
or pronouns may be put in the nominative, 
possessive, or objective cases; yet they may be 
in the nominative case independent. When 
a direct address is made, the noun addressed 
is in the nominative ease independent: as, 
John, permit me to give you a lesson: here, 
John is addressed; the noun John is, there- 
fore, in the nominative case independent: 
observe, the nominative case independent is 
always in the second person. A noun or 
pronoun placed before a participle, depend- 
ent on the rest of the sentence, is in the 
nominative case absolute: as, John having 
gone, we proceeded on our journey: here, 
the noun John is placed before the partici- 
ple, having gone, dependent on the rest of 
the sentence, consequently, John is in the 



24 

nominative case absolute: observe, the nomi- 
native case absolute is always in the third 
person. 

Nouns or pronouns, may be placed by 
apposition, in the same case: two or more 
nouns or a noun and pronoun, meaning the 
same things are put by apposition: as, John 
the grammarian: Ezekiel the prophet: here, 
John means the same thing as grammarian, 
and Ezekiel, the same as the prophet; they 
are therefore in the same case by apposition. 

Nouns or pronouns are put in the nomina- 
tive case, after the neuter verb to be, or its 
inflexions. 

This verb has seven variations, viz. am, 
art, is, was, are, ivere, been. When the nom- 
inative case precedes the verb, the same case 
must always follow: as, He is John; here 
John, is in the nominative case after the neu- 
ter verb, and must be, for a nominative case 
precedes it Agreeably to this rule, it would 
be incorrect to say; it is me, it is him, it is 
us; but, you must say; it is I, it is he, it is 
she, it is we. Nouns or pronouns may be 
put in the objective case, after the neuter 
verb to be, not its inflexions, for this can 
never happen: as, I took John to be him; or, 
I took him to be John: this is a case that rare- 
ly occurs, and deserves particular attention* 



25 

that you may be able to dispose of it accu- 
rately. 

Permit me to observe, there is one more 
variation on the cases of nouns, and we shall 
conclude this lecture; viz. A verb in the in- 
finitive mood or part of a sentence may be 
taken as one word, as a noun, and put in the 
nominative case to another verb: as, to see 
John is pleasant; what is pleasant? Here, 
the whole sentence previously to the verb, 
is taken as one word, as a noun proper, mas- 
culine gender, third person,singular number, 
and put in the nominative case, to the verb: 
is. Thus you perceive one single noun may- 
be varied, in eleven different ways: It may 
be put in the nominative case; as, John 
writes. In the possessive case; as, John's 
hat. In the objective case, governed by an 
active verb; as, I believe John. In the 
objective case governed by an active partici- 
ple; as, introducing John. In the objec- 
tive case governed by a preposition; as, I 
went with John. In the nominative case 
independent; as, John, permit me to give 
you a lesson. In the nominative case abso- 
lute; as, John having gone, we proceeded 
on our journey. In case by apposition; as, 
John the grammarian. In the nominative 
case, after the neuter verb to be, or its iri^ 



26 

flexions; as, he is John. In the objective 
case after the neuter verb to be, not its in- 
flexions; as, I took him to be John. And 
as a verb in the infinitive mood or part of a 
a sentence, put in the nominative case; as, 
to see John is pleasant. 

I have, you will remark, varied the noun 
John, through eleven different inflexions, and 
will now give you the order of parsing a 
noun, if you wish, therefore, to parse a 
noun; you must say it is a noun, and tell why; 
proper, common, or collective, and why; 
gender, person, number, case, and why. 
These are the properties of nouns, therefore 
never omit any of them in parsing. I will 
now parse a noun agreeably to the order laid 
down. John writes. John is a noun, the 
name of a person, masculine gender, denotes 
a male, third person, spoken of,singular num- 
ber, expresses but one object, and in the 
nominative case, he is the actor or subject of 
the verb. Rule. "The nominative case 
governs the verb/ 5 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE NOUN. 

1. Give the meaning of a noun? 

2. Name the examples of the noun? 

3. Why is a noun the most important 
part of speech? 



27 

4. Give the rule to distinguish the noun? 

5. Name the examples? 

6. How many kinds of nouns are there? 

7. Give the meaning of a proper noun? 

8. Name the examples? 

9. Give the meaning of a common noun? 

10. Name the examples? 

1 1 . Give the meaning of a noun of mul- 
titude or collective noun? 

12. Name the examples? 

13. Give the meaning of a participial or 
verbal noun? 

14. Name the examples? 

15. What is the gender of nouns? 

16. How many genders have nouns? 

17. Name the gender of nouns? 

18. Give the meaning of masculine gender? 

19. Name the examples? 

20. Give the meaning of the feminine 
gender? 

21. Name the examples? 

22. Give the meaning of neuter gender? 

23. Name the examples? 

24. Give the examples of nouns naturally 
neuter, converted into the masculine and 
feminine genders? 

25. Give the meaning of common gender? 

26. Name the examples? 

27. What is the person of nouns? 



28 

£8. How many persons have nouns? 

29. Give the meaning of the second person? 

30. Name the examples? 

31. Give the meaning of the third person? 

32. Name the examples? 

33. How do you make the first person of 
nouns? 

34. Name the examples? 

35. What is number? 

36. How many numbers have nouns? 

37. Name the number of nouns? 

38. Give the meaning of the singular num- 
ber? 

39. Name the examples? 

40. Give the meaning of the plural num- 
ber? 

41. Name the examples? 

42. How is the plural number of nouns 
formed? 

43. Name the examples? 

44. What nouns are always in the singular 
nnmber? 

45. What nouns are always in the plural 
number? 

46. What nouns maybe in both numbers? 

47. What number are the nouns of science? 

48. Name the examples? 

49. What number is the word news con- 
sidered? 



29 

30. What is the meaning of cases of nouns 
and pronouns? 

51. How many cases have nouns? 

52. Name the cases of nouns? 

53. Give the meaning of the nominative 
case? 

54. Name the examples? 

55. To ascertain the nominative case, what 
do you do? 

56. Is the verb always the next word to 
the nominative case? 

57. Do you ever pass a period before you 
come to the verb? 

58. How do you ascertain the nominative 
case, when many words intervene? 

59. Name the example? 

60. Does the nominative case always pre- 
cede the verb? 

61. Give the meaning of the possessive 
case? 

62. Name the examples? 

63. How are nouns and pronouns in the 
possessive case governed? 

64. How are nouns in the possessive case 
generally written? 

65. Give the meaning of the objective case? 

66. How many parts of speech govern the 
objective case? 

67. Name them? 



30 

68. Give an example of a noun in the ob- 
jective case, the object of an action governed 
by an active verb? 

69. Give an example of a noun in the ob- 
jective case, the object of an action governed 
by an active participle? 

70. Give an example of a noun the object 
of a relation governed by a preposition? 

71. Give the examples for the review in 
the nominative, possessive, and objective 
cases? 

72. Give the meaning of the nominative 
case independent? 

73. Name the examples? 

74. What person is the nominative case 
independent? 

75. Give the meaning of the nominative 
case absolute? 

76. Name the example? 

77. What person is the nominative case 
absolute? 

78. Give the meaning of case by apposi- 
tion? 

79. Name the examples? 

80. Give the meaning of the nominative 
case, after the neuter verb to be, or its in- 
flexions? 

81. How many inflexions has the neuter 
verb to be? 



31 

82. Name them? 

83. Name the examples in the nominative 
case after the neuter verb to be? 

84. Agreeably to the rule, how do you 
correct, it is me, it is him, it is her, it is 
us, &c. 

85. Give the meaning of the objective case 
after the neuter verb to be? 

86. Can we use the inflexions of the neu- 
ter verb in the objective case? 

87. How do you use a verb in the infini- 
tive as a noun? 

88. Name an example? 

89. How many variations are there, or in- 
flexions of cases? 

90. Take a single noun and vary it through 
all its inflexions of case? 

91. Give the order of parsing a noun? 

92. Parse the noun and apply its difini- 
tions according to the rules laid down? 



LECTURE ON THE VERB. 
Allow me to give you the lecture of the 
verb. What is the meaning or use of this 
part of speech? I answer, it is a word that 
is used to express action, passion, or being: 
as y I am, I love, I am loved. This part of 
speech is next in importance to the noun: it 



32 

has many variations or inflexions, and ex* 
presses the actions of all creatures and things. 
Every complete sentence, therefore, must 
have a verb in it, expressed or understood. 
The rule to distinguish this part of speech, 
is by placing the word to before it, or any 
of the personal pronouns; as, to love, to learn, 
to introduce, &c: or, I love, thou lovest, he 
loves, we love, ye or you love, they love. 

I would observe, that verbs are of three 
kinds, viz: Active, Passive, and Neuter. 
Active verbs express action, and may gene- 
rally be known by their admitting the per- 
sonal pronouns, in the objective case, after 
them, him, me, her, us: as, love me, love us, 
&c. Introduce me, introduce us, &c. There 
are, however, exceptions to this general rule, 
and your judgments must be the guide. 

A passive verb denotes suffering, or the 
receiving of an action, and is formed by add- 
ing the neuter verb to be, or any of its in- 
flexions, to the perfect participle of an active 
verb. The neuter verb to be, has seven in- 
flexions, viz: am, was, is, art, are, were, been; 
add the perfect participle loved, taught, &c. 
and the verb will be passive: as, am loved, 
was instructed, have been taught, are passive 
verbs. It always takes two or more verbs 
to make a passive verb. 



33 

A neuter verb expresses neither action 
nor passion, but being or a state of being: as, 
live, lie, sit, stand, &c. Your good sense 
will always enable you to distinguish neuter 
verbs. If a verb is active it is either transi- 
tive or intransitive. Active transitive verbs 
are those where an action passes over from 
an agent to the object: as, John struck Charles: 
here, the verb struck, is active transitive. 
Active intransitive verbs are those where 
the action is confined to an agent, but does 
not pass over to an object: as, John runs. 

I would likewise remark, that verbs are 
divided into regular, irregular, and defective. 
Regular verbs are those which will form their 
imperfect tense and perfect participle in the 
indicative mood, with the addition of d or ed: 
as, introduce, introduced, walk, walked, &c. 
Irregular verbs, are those which will not 
form their imperfect tense and perfect parti- 
ciple in the indicative mood, with the addi- 
tion of d or ed: as, write, w r rote, go, went, 
&c. You could not say, he writed me a let- 
ter, or he goed to town. Defective verbs 
are those which can only be used in some 
of the moods and tenses. They are known 
by the list. The following is the list of 
defective verbs. Can, could, shall, should, 
may, might, will, would, must, ought, quoth, 



34 

&c. Learn is a regular verb, you can use it 
in all the moods and tenses; you can say, I 
learn, I have learned, I may or can learn, 
&c. Can is a defective verb; you can use 
it in the present tense; you can say, I can, 
but you cannot say, I have can, or I had can, 
&c. 

To verbs belong Mood and Tense. Allow 
me to say, that to give the mood and tense of 
verbs correctly, is a very important part of 
Grammar; you will therefore carefully study 
the following rules and examples. Mood or 
mode is a particular form of the verb, show- 
ing the manner in which the action, passion, 
or being, is represented. There are five 
moods of verbs, viz: the indicative, the im- 
perative, the potential, the subjunctive, and 
the infinitive. 

The indicative mood simply indicates or 
declares a thing; or, it asks a question: as, 
John writes poetry, or, does he write poetry? 
here, the verb writes is in the indicative mood. 

The imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
or permits, a second person to do a thing: as, 
John, learn thou Grammar; here, the verb 
learn, is in the imperative mood. 

The potential mood implies possibility, 
power, will, or obligation: as, John may, can, 
must, or might learn Grammar; here, the verb 



35 

learn is in the potential mood. The Subjunc- 
tive mood expresses action,sufFering,or being, 
in a doubtful or conditional manner, and is al- 
ways preceded by a conjunction expressed,or 
understood, and attended with another verb: 
as, If John studies, will he improve? here, the 
verb studies is in the subjunctive mood. 

The infinitive mood represents a thing in a 
general or unlimited manner, without regard 
to person or number; ie, without regard to 
John: as, to learn Grammar: here, the verb 
learn is in the infinitive mood. 

Tei^se means time. Our language has six 
variations of time, viz: the present, the im- 
perfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the 
first and second future tense. 

The present tense expresses present time, 
and is denoted by the first form of the verb: 
as, John learns rhetorick now: here, the verb 
learns is in the present tense. 

The imperfect tense denotes past time: as* 
John learned rhetorick yesterday: here, the 
verb learned is in the imperfect tense. 

The perfect tense expresses the action as 
completed: as, John has learned rhetorick; 
here,the verb has learned j& in the perfect tense. 

The pluperfect tense denotes a past action 
or event, that transpired before some other 
time specified: as, John had learned rheto- 



36 

rick before I left town: here, the verb had 
learned is in the pluperfect tense. 

The first future tense denotes a future ac- 
tion or event, without regard to any definite 
period: as, John shall or will learn rhetorick, 
next week or next month; here, the verb shall 
or will learn, is in the first future tense. 

The second future tense represent a future 
action or event, that will transpire before 
some other time specified in the sentence: 
as, John shall have, or will have learned, is 
in the second future tense. 

I will now explain the person and number 
of verbs. Verbs have three persons, and 
two numbers, The persons are, first, second, 
and third. The numbers are singular and 
plural. Strictly speaking, however, they 
have neither; they borrow their person and 
number from the nominative case; thus I 
walk: here, the verb walk, is in the first per- 
son singular, because its nominative erase is, 
with which it agrees, Thou walkest: here, 
the verb is the second person singular, &c. 
He or she walks: here, the verb walk, is in 
the third person singular, &c. We walk; 
here, the verb walk, is the first person plu- 
ral. Ye or you walk; here, the verb walk is 
in the second person plural, &c. They walk; 
here, the verb walk, is in the third person 
plural, &c* 



37 

You perceive, therefore, that, to ascertain 
the person and number of verbs, you must 
refer to their nominative case. I will now 
give you the signs of the moods and tenses, 
which will enable you to speak or write a 
verb correctly. The sign of the imperative 
mood is let, or command; whenever a com- 
mand is given, the verb must be in the im- 
perative mood. The sign of the potential 
mood, is, may, can, must, might, could, would, 
or should. The sign of the subjunctive 
mood, is, if, though, unless, except, whether. 
To is the sign of the infinitive mood. The 
indicative mood has no sign; therefore, un- 
less you see one of these signs expressed or 
understood, the verb must be in the indica- 
tive mood. The present and imperfect 
tenses have no sign; your judgment must 
determine present and past time. The sign 
of the perfect tense, is have, has, hath or 
hast. The sign of the pluperfect tense, is 
had, or hadst. The sign of the first future 
tense, is,shalt, or will. The sign of the second 
future tense, is shall have, or will have. 
Every verb, therefore, which you speak or 
write, unless it be of the present or imper- 
fect tenses of the indicative mood, must have 
one or the other of these signs expressed or 
understood. These signs are of great im- 



38 

portance, and you must immediately commit 
them to memory. The indicative and sub- 
junctive moods have six tenses: viz: the 
present, the imperfect, the perfect, the plu- 
perfect, and the first and second future tenses. 
The potential mood has four tenses, viz. the 
present, the imperfect, the perfect, and the 
pluperfect. The infinitive mood has two 
tenses, viz. the present and the perfect. The 
imperative mood has one tense, viz. the 
present tense. Allow me to give you some 
further remarks on the verb, and I shall con- 
clude this lecture. 

The conjugation of a verb is the combina- 
tion of its several numbers, persons, moods 
and tenses. The conjugation of an active 
verb, is called the active voice: as, I learn: 
Of a passive verb, the passive voice: as, I 
am loved. The following is a list of the 
auxiliary verbs, which help to conjugate 
other verbs: viz. do, be, have, shall, will, 
may, can, with their variations, and let, and 
must, which have no variation. 

Observe, you can never parse a noun in 
the nominative case, with a verb in the im- 
perative mood. A verb in the imperative 
mood, can only agree with the second person 
of the pronouns. It agrees with thou, when 
one person or thing is addressed: as, John, 



39 

permit me to address you: It agrees with ye, 
or you, when more than one person or thing 
is addressed: as, gentlemen, permit me to 
give you a lecture. 

Verbs in the infinitive mood have neither 
number, person, or nominative case: After 
giving their mood and tense, you must say 
by what they are governed: They may be 
governed by a noun, verb, participle, or 
adjective. 

Auxiliary verbs can never be used with 
defective verbs: as, I had ought would be 
as improper as to say, I had can, 1 had could, 
&c. I will now give you the order of par- 
sing a verb. If you wish to parse a verb, 
you must say whether it is regular, irregular, 
or defective, and why? Active, passive, or 
neuter, and why? If active transitive or in- 
transive, and why? Mood and tense, number 
and person, and why? With what it agrees, 
and why? These are called the inflexions of 
the verb; never omit any of them. I will 
now parse a verb, and give the definitions 
and rules, agreeably to the order laid down. 
John learns. Learns is a verb; a part of 
speech which signifies action, passion, or 
being. Active, it expresses action: intransi- 
tive, the action is confined to the agent: 
regular, it will form its imperfect tense, and 



40 

perfect participle of the indicative mood, 
with the addition of ed: it is in the indicative 
mood, it simply indicates or declares a thing: 
present tense, it denotes present time: third 
pa:son, singular number, because its nomi- 
native John is, with which it agrees: Rule: 
A verb must agree with its nominative case 
in number and person. Allow me to remind 
you again, that this lecture must be carefully 
reviewed, until you understand it thoroughly, 
and then your next business will be, to learn 
the conjugation of verbs. 

QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE VERB. 

1. Give the meaning of the verb? 

2. Name the examples of the noun? 

3. Has every complete sentence a verb 
in it? 

4. Give the rule to distinguish the verb? 

5. Name the examples? 

6. How many kinds of verbs are there? 

7. Give the meaning of an active verb? 

8. Name the examples? 

9. Give the general rule to distinguish 
active verbs? 

10. Are there exceptions to the rule? 

11. Give the meaning of a passive verb? 

12. How are passive verbs formed? 

13. Name the inflexions of the neuter verb 
to be? 



41 

14. Can a single verb be passive? 

15. How many verbs make a passive verb? 

16. Name the examples of passive verbs? 

17. Give the meaning of an active transi- 
tive verb? 

18. Name the example? 

19. Give the meaning of an active intran- 
sitive verb? 

20. Name the example? 

21. Give the meaning of a regular verb? 

22. Name the examples? 

23. Give the meaning of an irregular verb? 

24. Name the examples? 

25. Give the meaning of defective verbs? 

26. Give the list of defective verbs? 

27. Is love a defective verb, and why not? 

28. Is can a defective verb, and why is it? 

29. Give the meaning of mood or mode? 

30. How many moods or modes are there? 

31. Give the list? 

32. Give the meaning of the indicative 
mood? 

33. Name the examples? 

34. Give the meaning of the imperative 
mood? 

35. Name the example? 

36. Give the meaning of the potential 
mood? 

37. Name the example? 

5 



42 

38. Give the meaning of the subjunctive 
mood? 

39. Name the example. 

40. Give the meaning of the infinitive 
mood? 

41. Name the example? 

42. What is tense? 

43. How many variations are there of tense? 

44. Name the list? 

45. Give the meaning of the present tense? 

46. Name the example? 

47. Give the meaning of the imperfect 
tense? 

48. Name the example? 

49. Give the meaning of the perfect tense? 

50. Name the example? 

51. Give the meaning of the pluperfect 
tense? 

52. Name the example? 

53. Give the meaning of the first future 
tense? 

54. Name the example? 

55. Give the meaning of the second future 

tense? 

56. Name the examples? 

57. Have verbs person and number? 

58. How do they get them? 

59. Give the order of the person of verbs? 

60. Give their numbers? 



43 

81. Name the examples? 

62. Give the sign of the imperative mood? 

63. Give the sign of the potential mood? 

64. Give the sign of the subjunctive mood? 

65. Give the sign of the infinitive mood? 

66. Has the indicative mood any sign? 

67. Have the present and imperfect tenses 
any sign? 

68. Give the sign ot the perfect tense? 

69. Give the sign of the pluperfect tense? 

70. Give the sign of the first future tense? 

71. Give the sign of the second future 
tense? 

72. How many tenses have the indicative 
and subjunctive moods? 

73. Name them? 

74. How many tenses has the potential 
mood? 

75. Name them? 

76. How many tenses has the infinitive 
mood? 

77. Name them? 

78. How many tenses has the imperative 
mood? 

79. Name them? 

80. Why is it of importance to know the 
signs of the moods and tenses? 

81. What is the conjugation of a verb 
called? 



44 

82. What is the conjugation of an active 
verb styled? 

83. Name the example? 

84. What is the conjugation of a passive 
verb styled? 

85. Name the example? 

86. What is the use of auxiliary verbs? 

87. Give the list of the auxiliary verbs? 

88. Can you parse a noun in the nomina- 
tive case to a verb in the imperative mood? 

89. What persons of the pronoun agree 
with verbs in the imperative mood? 

90. Name the examples? 

91. Do we give person, number, or nomi- 
native case, to verbs in the infinitive mood? 

92. What do you say about them in pars- 
ing? 

93. What parts of speech govern verbs in 
the infinitive mood? 

94. Do auxiliary verbs agree with defec- 
tive? 

95. Give the order of parsing a verb? 

96. Parse a verb and give the definitions 
and rules agreeably to the order laid down? 



45 



LECTURE ON THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb, is the combina- 
tion of its several numbers, persons, moods 
and tenses. 

Conjugation of the neuter verb to be and 
the auxiliary. 

TO BE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. PluraL 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. Ye or you are, 

3. He, she or it is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. Ye or you were, 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. Ye or you have been, 

3. He hath or has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. Ye or you had been, 

3. He had been. B, They had been. 

5* 



46 

First Future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I Shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

3. H« shall or wilt be. be, 

3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. Ye or you will have been, 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be, 1. Let us be, 

2. Be thou or do thou be, 2. Be ye or you or do you 

3. Let him be. be, 

3. Let them be. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I may or can be, 


1. We may or can be, 


2. Thou mayst or canst be, 


2. Ye or you may or can 


3. He may or can be. 


be, 




3. They may or can be. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 1. We might,could, would, 
or should be, or should be, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or shouldstbe, would or should be, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, 
or should be. would, or should be. 



47 



Perfect Tense 
Singular. 

1. I may or can have been, 

2. Thou mayst, or canst 
have been, 

3. He may, or can have 
been. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 
or should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst 
have been, 

3. He might, could,would, 
or should have been. 



Plural. 

1. We may or can have 
been, 

2. Ye or you may or can 
have been, 

3. They may or can have 
been. 

Pluperfect Tense, 

Plural. 

1. Wemight,could,would, 
or should have been, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 
would or should have 
been, 

3. They might, could, 



would, or should have 
been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense* 

PluraL 

1. If we be, 

2. If ye or you be, 

3. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense* 

Plural. 

1 . If we were, 

2. If ye or you were, 

3. If they were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular, PluraL 

1. If I have been, 1. If we have been, 

2. If thou hast been, 2. If ye or you have been, 

3. If he hath or has been. 3. If they have been. 



Singular. 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be 

3. If he be. 



Singular, 

1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert, 

3. If he were. 



43 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, 2. If ye or you had been, 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

First Future Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be, 1. If we shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, 2. If ye or you shall or 

3. If he .shall or will be. will be. 

3. If they shall or will be. 
Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been, 1, If we shall have been, 

2. If thou shalt have been, 2* If ye or you shall have 

3. If he shall have been* been, 

3. If they shall have been. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, To be. Perfect To have been. 

Participles* 
Present Being. Perfect Been. 

Compound Perfect Having been. 

The student will observe, that in the sub- 
junctive mood imperfect tense, the plural 
form of the verb to be, is used in the singular 
number, which is perhaps, the only excep- 
tion to the second rule of Syntax, which 
says, a verb must agree with its nominative 
case, in number and person. 



QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING LECTURE, viz: 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB— TO BE. 

1. Conjugate the indicative mood present 
tense? 



49 

it 

2. Conjugate the imperfect tense? 
3* Conjugate the perfect tense? 

4. Conjugate the pluperfect tense? 

5. Conjugate the first future tense? 

6. Conjugate the second future tense? 

7. Conjugate the imperative mood pre- 
sent tense? 

8. Conjugate the potential mood pre- 
sent tense? 

9. Conjugate the imperfect tense? 

10. Conjugate the perfect tense? 

11. Conjugate the pluperfect tense? 

12. Conjugate the subjunctive mood pre- 
sent tense? 

13. Conjugate the imperfect tense? 

14. Conjugate the perfect tense? 

15. Conjugate the pluperfect tense? 

16. Conjugate the first future tense? 

17. Conjugate the second future tense? 

18. Conjugate the infinitive mood present 
and perfect tenses? 

19. Name the participles? 



50 



LECTURE ON THE CONJUGATION OF 
THE VERB— LOVE. 

TO LOVE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love , 

3. He, she, or it loveth, 3. They love. 
or loves. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. Ye or you loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. He hath, or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, I. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. Ye or you had loved, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural- 

it . I shall or will love, 1, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or will love, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

3. He shall or will love. love, 

3. They shall o/\ will love. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye or you will have 
&> He will have loved. loved, 

3. They will have loved. 



51 





IMPERATIVE MOOD. 




Singular. Plural* 


1. 


Let me love, 1. Let us love, 


2. 


Love, or love thou, or 2. Love, or love ye or you ? 




do thou love, or do ye love, 


3. 


Let him love. 3. Let them love. 




POTENTIAL MOOD. 




Present Tense. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I may or can love, 1. We may or can love, 


2. 


Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 




love, love, 


3. 


He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. 




Imperfect Tense. 




Singular. Plural* 


1. 


I might, could, would, 1. We might,cou!d, would. 




or should love, or should love, 


2. 


Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 




wouldst,orshouldstlove, would, or should love. 


3. 


He might, could,would, 3. They might, could. 




or should love. would, or should love. 




Perfect Tense. 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


I may or can have loved, 1. We may or can have 


2, 


, Thou mayst or canst loved, 




have loved, 2. Ye or you may or can 


3. 


He may or can have have loved, 




loved. 3. They may or can have 




loved. 




Pluperfect Tense. 




Singular. P ural. 


1. 


I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would 



or should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 
wouldst,or shouldst have 
loved, 

3. Hemight, could,would, 
or should have loved. 



or should have loved, 
. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have 

loved, 
. They might, could, 

would, or should have 

loved. 



52 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If* he love. 3. If they love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 



QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING LECTURE viz: 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB— TO LOVE. 

1. Conjugate the indicative mood present 
tense? 

2. Conjugate the imperfect tense? 

3. Conjugate the perfect tense? 

4. Conjugate the pluperfect tense? 

5. Conjugate the first future tense? 

6. Conjugate the second future tense? 

7. Conjugate the imperative mood? 

8. Conjugate the potential mood present 
tense? 

9. Conjugate the imperfect tense? 

10. Conjugate the perfect tense? 

11. Conjugate the pluperfect tense? 

12. Conjugate the subjunctive mood pre- 
sent tense? 

*The remaining Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood, correspond to 
the similar tenses in the Indicative Mood, with the exception of the 
subjunctive sign "if." 



53 

13. Conjugate the infinitive mood present 
tense? 

14. Conjugate the perfect tense? 

15. Name the participles? 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES ON THE CONJU- 
GATION OF DIFFERENT VERBS. 

These exercises are laid down for the in- 
spection of the student, in order that all dif- 
ficulty may be obviated in the conjugation 
of verbs. 

Of the Verb— HAVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or has. 

Plur. 1. We have. 2. Ye or you have 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 
Plur. 1. We had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They had. 
Perfect. I have had, &c. Pluperfect. I had had, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Sing. Have thou, or do thou have. 
Plur. Have ye or you or do ye have. 

Of the Verb— TO GO. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. 1. I go. 2. Thougoest. 3. He, she, or it goes. 
Plur. 1. We go. 2. Ye or you go. 3. They go. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. 1. I went. 2. Thou wentst. 3. He, she, or it went. 
Plur. 1. We went. 2. Ye or you went. 3. They went. 
Perfect Tense. Sing. I have gone &c. 
6 



54 

Pluperfect Tense. I had gone, &c. 

First Future Tense. Sing. I shall or will go, &,&- 

Second Future Tense. I shall have gone, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. Sing. Go thou or do thou go. 

Plur. Go ye or you or do ye go, &,c. 
INFINITIVE M001>. 
Present Tense. To go. Perfect Tense. To have gone, &c. 

I would observe, that if you speak of the 
verb love, in the active voice, you must say, 
I love, thou lovestj he loves, &c. But if you 
use the verb love, in the passive voice, you 
must say, I am loved, thou art loved, he is 
loved, &c. Allow me to say, that the stu- 
dent must always bear in mind, that verbs in 
the passive voice, are formed by adding the 
neuter verb to be, or any of its inflexions, to 
the perfect participle; consequently, it requires 
two or more rerbs, to make a passive verb. 

The following is a list of the principal de- 
fective verbs* 
Present, Imperfect. Perfect or Pass. Part, 

Can, could. 

May, might. 

Shall, should. 

Will, would. 

Must, must. 

Ought, ought, 
quoth. 

Note. —The student will perceive that the verbs to be and to have 
are auxiliary verbs, consequently they are of a limited nature, and 
cannot be conjugated without the help of other auxiliaries. 



55 

The preceding exercises must be careful- 
ly examined, and the lectures on the verbs 
to be and to love reviewed until every ques- 
tion in reference to those two lectures, can 
be answered correctly, and then every diffi- 
culty will vanish, and you will be able to 
speak or write a verb with propriety, in any 
mood or tense required^ and allow me to 
say, after this work shall have been finished, 
it will be necessary to commit to memory, 
the following list of irregular verbs with their 
order* 

The following is a list of Irregular Verbs, 
You will perceive, however, that those which 
are marked with R, are often used as regu- 
lar verbs, and will form their imperfect tense 
in the indicative mood with the addition of 
d or ed* 



Present 


Imperfect 


Per/, or Pass. Part 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Awake, 


awoke, r 


awaked. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten. 


Bear,fo bring forth, bare, 


born. 


Bear, to carry, 


bore, 


borne. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bead, 


bent, 


bent. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r 


bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


hid, bade, 


bidden^ hid* 



56 



Present 




Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part 


Bind, 




bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 




bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 




bled, 


bled, 


Blow, 




blew, 


blown. 


Break, 




broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 




bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 




brought, 


brought. 


Build, 




built, 


built. 


Buy, 




bought, 


bought. 


Burst, 




burst, 


burst. 


Cast, 




cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 




caught, 


caught. 


Chide, 




chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 




chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, 


to stick or adhere, Regular. 




Cleave, 


to split, 


clove, or cleft, 


cleft, cloven, 


Cling, 




clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 




clothed, 


clad, r 


Come, 




came, 


come. 


Cost ? 




cost, 


cost. 


Crow, 




crew, r 


crowed. 


Creep, 




crept, 


crept. 


Cut, 




cut, 


cut. 


Dare, to venture^ 


durst, 


dared. 


Dare, r, 


. to challenge. 




Deal, 




dealt, „ 


dealt. 


Dig, 




dug, 


dug. 


Do, 




did, 


done. 


Draw, 




drew, 


drawn. 


Drive, 




drove, 


driven. 


Drink, 




drank, 


drunk. 


Dwell, 




dwelt, 


dwelt. 


Eat, 




eat or ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 




fell, 


fallen. 


Feed* 




fed* 


fed. 



57 



Present. 


Imperfect 


Feel, 


felt, 


Fight, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


Fled, 


fled, 


Fling, 


flung, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Forget, 


forgot, 


Forsaken, 


forsook, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


Get, 


got, 


Gild, 


gilt, r. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grave, 


graved, 


Grind, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


Have, 


had, 


Hang, 


hung, 


Hear, 


heard, 


Hew, 


hewed, 


Hide, 


hid, 


Hit, 


hit, 


Hold, 


held, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


Keep, 


kept, 


Knit, 


knit, a. 


Know, 


knew, 


Lade, 


laded, 


Lay, 


laid, 


Lead, 


led, 


Leave, 


teft, 


Lend, 


tent, 


Let, 


let. 



Per/, or Pass. Part 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
flung, 
flown. 

forgotten, forgo*, 
forsaken, 
frozen, 
got. 
gilt, r. 
girt, r. 
given, 
gone, 
graven, b. 
ground, 
grown, 
had. 
hung, r. 
heard, 
hewn, r. 
hidden, hid. 
hit. 
held, 
hurt, 
kept, 
knit, r. 
known, 
laden, r. 
laid, 
led. 
left, 
lent, 
let. 



6* 



58 



Present 


Imperfect 


Perf. or Pass. Part 


Lie, to lie down 


> lay, 


lain. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Meet, 


met, 


met* 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Ride, 


ride, 


rode, ridden. 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Sent, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped,shapen,R* 


Shear^ 


sheared, 


shorn, r. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, r. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Shrink, 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 



59 



Present. 


Imperfect 


Per/, or Pass, Part. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, or slitted. 


smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, r. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped* 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten, 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode, or strid, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck,orstricken 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Strow, 


strowed or strewed 


1, C strown, strowed, 
\ strewed. 






Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, r. 


sweat, r. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, r. 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 



60 



Present 


Imperfect 


Per/, or Pass. Part. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


, i thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, 


thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, it. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought,or worked 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. „ 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



It may be necessary to remark, that the 
preceding list of irregular verbs^ should be 
committed to memory, that the learner may 
be able to dispose of the verb accurately in 
every situation. 



QUESTIONS ON THE PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF THE 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS, &c. 

L Give the reason for the promiscuous 
examples of verbs? 

2. Conjugate the verb to have, indica- 
tive mood, present tense? 



61 

3. Conjugate the verb in the imperfect 
tense? 

4. Conjugate the verb in the perfect tense? 

5. Conjugate the verb in the pluperfect 
tense? 

6. Conjugate the verb in the imperative 
mood? 

7. Conjugate the verb to go in the indi- 
cative mood, present tense? 

8. Conjugate the verb in the imperfect 
tense? 

9. Conjugate the verb in the perfect tense? 

10. Conjugate the verb in the pluperfect 
tense? 

11. Conjugate the verb in the first future 
tense? 

12. Conjugate the verb in the second fu- 
ture tense? 

13. Conjugate the verb in the imperative 
mood, present tense? 

14. Conjugate the verb in the infinitive 
mood? 

15. Give the verb love in the active voice? 

16. Give the verb love in the passive voice? 

17. How is the passive verb formed? 

18. Can one verb alone be passive? 

19. Give the list of defective verbs? 

20. Why are the verbs to be and love to 
be reviewed? 



62 

21. Conjugate the list of irregular verbs? 

22. Why should the list of irregular verbs 
be committed to memory? 



LECTURE ON THE ADJECTIVE. 

Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
adjective. An adjective is a part of speech, 
which is used to express the quality of the 
noun; as, a good man, a bad man, a black 
horse, a white horse. In these examples, 
good, bad, black and tvhite, are adjectives; 
they express the quality of the thing repre- 
sented. An adjective may be known by its 
making sense, with the addition of the word 
thing: as, a good thing, a bad thing, &c. I 
would observe, that the only variation of 
adjectives, are the degrees of comparison. 
There are three degrees of comparison, viz: 
the positive, the comparative, and the super- 
lative. 

The positive state expresses the quality of 
an object without increase or diminution: as, 
good, bad, &c. 

The comparative degree increases or les- 
sens the positive in signification: as, wiser, 
greater. 

The superlative degree increases or les- 
sens the positive, to the highest or lowest 
degree: as, greatest, wisest, least 



63 

Words of one syllable, or monosyllables, 
are generally compared by er and est: as, 
positive great, comparative greater, super- 
lative greatest. 

Words of more than one syllable, or poly- 
syllables, are compared by more, and most: 
as, positive excellent, comparative more 
excellent, superlative most excellent. 

Words of two syllables ending in y, as, 
happy, lovely, are sometimes compared by 
er and est: as, happier, happiest. Some ad- 
jectives are irregularly compared: as, good, 
better, best; bad, worse, worst; many or 
much, more, most; little, less, least. Some 
adjectives are always in the positive state, 
and cannot be compared: as, mortal, present, 
&c. Some adjectives are always in the su- 
perlative degree: as, right, supreme, immu- 
table. Adjectives are sometimes used as 
nouns, in the room of persons: as, Provi- 
dence rewards the good, and punishes the 
bad; here, good and bad are adjectives, used 
as nouns. 

Adjectives are generally placed before 
nouns, of which they express the quality; 
sometimes, however, they follow them: as, 
the gentleman is intelligent and virtuous. 
Adjectives are sometimes placed before the 
wrong noun: as, a beautiful piece of cloth, 



64 

instead of a piece of beautiful cloth; this is 
a§ incorrect as to say; have you any black 
mens' hats for sale? I need not say to you, 
avoid all such expressions as these. I will 
now give you the order of parsing the adjec- 
tive. If you wish to parse an adjective you 
must say it is an adjective, and tell why; give 
the degree of comparison; compare it, if it 
can be compared, and say to what noun it 
belongs. I will conclude this lecture, by 
parsing an adjective, giving the definitions 
and rules, agreeably to the order laid down. 
A wise man. Wise, is an adjective, a part 
of speech, which expresses the quality of a 
noun; it is in the positive state: Positive 
wise, comparative wiser, superlative wisest; 
and belongs to the noun man: Rule. Every 
adjective and every adjective pronoun, be- 
longs to a noun expressed or understood. 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE AD- 
JECTIVE. 

1. Give the meaning of the adjective? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. Name the adjectives in those exam- 
ples? 

4. Give the rule to distinguish the adjec- 
tive? 

5. How many variations will they admit? 



65 

6. Name those variations? 

7. Give the meaning of the positive state? 

8. Name the examples? 

9. Give the meaning of the comparative 
degree? 

10. Name the examples? 

11. Give the meaning of the superlative 
degree? 

12. Name the example? 

13. How are words of one syllable gene- 
rally compared? 

14. Compare the adjective great? 

15. How are words of more than one syl- 
lable compared? 

16. Compare the adjective excellent? 

17. How are words of two syllables end- 
ing in y compared? 

18. Compare the adjective happy? 

19. Name those adjectives which are ir- 
regularly compared? 

20. Name those adjectives which are al- 
ways in the positive state and cannot be 
compared? 

21. Name those adjectives which are natu- 
rally in the superlative degree? 

22. Are adjectives used sometimes as 
nouns? 

23. Name the example? 

7 



66 

24. How are adjectives generally placed 
with nouns? 

25. Do adjectives follow the noun? 

26. Name the example? 

27. Is it correct language to say a beau- 
tiful piece of cloth? 

28. Why is it incorrect? 

29. Name an illustration? 

30. Give the order of parsing an adjective? 

31. Parse an adjective and give the defini- 
tion and rules agreeably to the order laid 
down? 



LECTURE ON THE PRONOUN. 
Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
pronoun. Permit me to remark, that there 
are three kinds of pronouns, viz: the per- 
sonal, the relative, and the adjective pronouns. 
A personal pronoun is a word used instead 
of a noun: as, I saw a man, John improves 
because he studies. In the first example the 
pronoun / personifies the person speaking: 
in the second example, the pronoun he is 
used to avoid the repetition of the noun John. 
I will give you a list of the personal pronouns. 

Singular number. Plural number. 

I, We, 

Thou, Ye or you, 

He, They. 
She and it. 



67 

I, is the first person singular. 

Thou, is the second person singular* 

He, she, or it, is the third person singular. 

We, is the first person plural, 

Ye or you, is the second person plural. 

They, is the third person plural. 

If you wish to make a pronoun to stand for a 
gentleman, you must say, he, or for a lady you 
must say she, or for a house you must say it. 
It is sometimes difficult for the learner to 
distinguish the pronouns; I shall therefore 
proceed to decline them after the modern 
style. 

First Person. 



JVom. 


Singular. 

I. 


Plural. 

We. 


Poss. 


My or mine. 


Our or ours. 


Obj. 


Me. 


Us. 




Second Person* 


Nom. 


Singular. 

Thou. 


Plural. 

Ye or you. 


Poss. 
Obj. 


Thy or thine. 
Thee. 

Third Person 


Your or yours* 
You. 




MASCULINE GENDER. 


Nom. 

Poss. 


Singular- 

He. 
His. 


Plural. 

They. 

Their or theirs 


Obj. 


Him, 


Them. 



Third Person* 
FEMININE GENDER. 

Singular. Plural. 



JVom. 


She. They. 


Poss. 


Her or hers-. Their or theirs. 


Obj. 


Her. Them. 




Third Person. 




NEUTER GENDER. 




Singular, PluraL 


Norn. 


It. They. 


Poss. 


Its. Their or theirs. 


Obj. 


It. Them. 



You perceive, therefore, that my, thy, his, 
her, our, your, their, are personal pronouns: 
as, there is the gentleman and his servant; 
whose servant? You perceive his, ie, the 
gentleman's. 

I would likewise observe, that gender is 
only applied to he, she, and it; consequently, 
the order of parsing a personal pronoun, is 
the same as that of parsing a noun, with the 
exception that the terms proper and com- 
mon, are not applied to pronouns. I would 
beg leave to remark, that all verbs in the 
English language, are conjugated with the 
personal pronouns. 

I will now give you the order of parsing 
a pronoun. If you wish to parse a pronoun, 
you must say it is a pronoun, and tell why; 
personal, and why; gender, person, number^ 



69 

case, and why. I will finish this lecture by 
parsing a pronoun, and give the definitions 
and rules agreeably to the order laid dow T n. 
I will come presently. I, is a pronoun, a word 
used instead of a noun; personal, it repre- 
sents a person, first person, it represents the 
person speaking, singular number, it denotes 
but one object, nominative case, it denotes 
the actor: Rule. The nominative case gov* 
erns the verb. 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE PER- 
SONAL PRONOUN. 

1. How many kind of pronouns are there? 

2. Name the list? 

3. Give the meaning of a personal pro- 
noun? 

4. Name the examples? 

5. What words in those examples are 
pronouns? 

6. What do they represent? 

7. Give a list of the personal pronouns? 

8. Name the singular and plural number 
of pronouns? 

9. Why is it difficult to distinguish pro-* 
nouns? 

10. Decline the personal pronouns? 

11. What words in this declension are 
pronouns? 



70 

12. Name the example? 

13. Name the pronoun in the example? 

14. To which of the personal pronouns 
do we appty gender? 

15. What is the difference between pars- 
ing a noun and a pronoun? 

16. With what are verbs in the English 
language conjugated? 

17. Give the order of parsing a pronoun? 

18. Parse the pronoun and give the defi- 
nitions and rules agreeably to order laid 
down? 



LECTURE ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

I would observe, that relative pronouns 
are words which in general relate to some 
word or phrase going before them, and which 
is called the antecedent: they are who, ivhich, 
what, and that. Relative pronouns agree 
with their antecedents, in gender, person, 
and number: as, he who made the assertion, 
is right. In this sentence you perceive who 
is a relative pronoun, and relates to he, as its 
antecedent agreeing with it, in gender, per- 
son and number. To ascertain, therefore, 
the gender, person, and number, of a rela- 
tive pronoun, you must refer to its antece- 
dent, for it is always the same. 

The relative pronoun who, may be the 



71 

same in the singular and plural number. 
We decline it thus: — Nom> Who. 

Poss. Whose. 
Obj. Whom. 
Permit me to remark, that in the modern 
style of speaking, who is applied to persons, 
and which, to brutes and inanimate things. 
The word that may become three parts of 
speech, according to the manner in which it 
is applied: viz. a relative pronoun, a demon- 
strative adjective pronoun, and a conjunction. 
The word that is a relative pronoun when 
you can change it into who, or which, with- 
out destroying the sense: as, he that studies 
improves. In this example, that is a rela- 
tive pronoun, you can change it into who, 
without destroying the sense. Industry is 
a quality that adorns human nature. In this 
sentence, that is a relative pronoun; you can 
change it into which. The word that is a 
demonstrative adjective pronoun, when it is 
joined to a noun, and points out some parti- 
cular noun: as, that lady, that gentleman, 
that house, that city. In these examples, 
the word that has no case; you must apply 
the rule for parsing adjectives. The word 
that is a conjunction, when it is neither of 
the former; that is, when you cannot change 
it into who or which, and it is not joined to a 



72 

noun: as, I am happy that you are here: in 
this example that is a conjunction; you can- 
not change it into who or which, and it is 
not joined to a noun; it must therefore be a 
conjunction. I would remark, the word that 
is frequently preferable to ivho or which; as 
no definite rule however can be given for its 
application, the student must exercise his 
judgment, in speaking and writing, to use it 
correctly. 

The word what may be three distinct parts 
of speech, according to the manner in which 
it is applied: it may be a compound relative 
pronoun, or interrogative adjective pronoun, 
or a relative of the interrogative kind. The 
word vjhat is a compound relative, including 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is 
equivalent to that which, or the thing which: 
in this situation you must give a separate 
case to that and which: sometimes they are 
both in the nominative case; sometimes both 
are in the objective case; and sometimes, one 
is in the nominative and the other in the ob- 
jective case. First example — The com- 
pound relative what, equivalent to that which, 
and both in the nominative case; viz. "What- 
ever merits esteem, is worthy of regard." 
Mere, that the antecedent part of what, is in 
the nominative case to the verb is. Which, 



73 

the relative part of what, is in the nominative 
case to the verb merits; it is transposed thus; 
"that is worthy of regard, which merits es- 
teeem." Second example — The compound 
relative what, equivalent to that which, and 
both in the objective case: viz. Discharge 
your duty, in whatever you undertake. 
Here, that is the antecedent part of what, in 
the objective case, the object of a relation 
expressed by the preposition in: which the 
relative part of what, is in the objective case, 
the object of the active transitive verb un- 
dertake: it is thus transposed: discharge 
your duty in that which you undertake. 
Third example — The compound relative 
what, equivalent to that which, one being in 
the nominative case and the other in the ob- 
jective case: our knowledge of what is right, 
should prompt us to active exertion: here 
that, the antecedent part of ivhat, is in the 
objective case, the object ot the preposition 
of: vjhich, the relative part of what, is in the 
nominative to the verb is. 

The word ivhat, is an interrogative adjec- 
tive pronoun, when it is used interrogatively, 
and points out some noun: as, what genteel 
lady is that? In this example, what has no 
case. The word what is a relative of the in- 
terrogative kind, when it is used in asking 



74 

questions: as, what are you doing? In this 
example what is in the objective case, the 
object of an action of the participle doing: 
it is thus transposed; you are doing what? 
The word what, is sometimes used as an in- 
terjection: as, "what! is thy servant a dog?" 
Permit me to observe, that the pronoun ivhat 
should never be used instead of the conjunc- 
tion that; it would therefore be incorrect to 
say, I would not believe but what he was 
there: it should be, but that he was there. I 
would likewise observe, that the word which 
is always an adjective, when it is joined to a 
noun. 

I scarcely need say, that the lecture on 
the relative pronoun, is more intricate than 
any of the lectures; you must therefore re- 
view it carefully until you can answer eve- 
ry question. I will now finish this lecture 
by parsing a compound relative. Whatever 
strengthens, fortifies the body: tvhat is a 
compound relative, including both the ante- 
cedent and the relative, and is equivalent to 
that which; that, the antecedent part of what, 
is of the neuter gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, and is in the nominative case to 
the verb fortifies: ivhich, the relative part of 
what, relates to that, as its antecedent agree- 
ably to the rule; pronouns agree with their 



75 

antecedents and the nouns for which they 
stand: and is in the neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, and nominative 
case to the verb strengthens: Rule. The 
relative, is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative comes between it and 
the verb, but when the nominative comes 
between the relative and the verb, the rela- 
tive is governed by some word in its own 
member of the sentence. 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE RE- 
LATIVE PRONOUN. 

1 . Give the meaning of a relative pronoun? 

2. Name the list? 

3. With what do relative pronouns agree? 

4. Name the examples? 

5. Hoav do you find the gender &c. of 
the relative? 

6. Is the relative pronoun the same in 
both numbers? 

7. Decline the relative pronoun? 

8. To what is the relative who applied? 

9. To what is the relative which applied? 

10. How many parts of speech is the rela- 
tive that, in its application? 

11. Name the list? 

12. Give the meaning of the word that, as 
a relative pronoun in its application? 



76 

13-. Name the examples? 

14. Give the meaning of the word that, as 
a demonstrative adjective pronoun? 

15. Name the example? 

16. Give the meaning of the word that, as 
a conjunction? 

17. Name the example? 

18. Why is the relative that, used in pre- 
ference to who, or which? 

19. How many parts of speech may the 
relative what, become? 

20. Name the list? 

21. Give the meaning of the word, what, 
as a compound relative? 

22. Name the cases in which the word 
what may be used? 

23. Give the examples of the word what, 
as a compound relative both in the nomina- 
tive case? 

24. Parse the compound relative and trans- 
pose the example? 

25. Give the example of the word what 
as a compound relative both in the objective 
case? 

26. Parse the compound relative and trans- 
pose the example? 

27. Give the example of the word what, 
as a compound relative, one in the nomina- 
tive, the other in the objective case? 



77 

28. Parse the compound relative and 
transpose the example? 

29. Give the meaning of the word what, 
as an interrogative adjective pronoun? 

30. Name the example? 

31. Has the word what in this example 
any case? 

32. What rule do you apply to the word 
what in this example? 

33. Give the meaning of the word what, 
as a relative of the interrogative kind? 

34. Name the example? 

35. Parse the relative and transpose the 
example? 

36. Can the word what be used as an in- 
terjection? 

37. Name the example? 

38. Can the pronoun what be used instead 
of the conjunction that? 

39. Name an example? 

40. What part of speech is the word which 
when it joins a noun? 

41. Parse the compound relative and ap- 
ply the rules agreeably to the order laid 
down? 



78 



LECTURE ON THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Allow me to remark that I have given 
you a lecture on the personal, and on the 
relative pronouns; I will now give you the 
lecture on the adjective pronoun: you per- 
ceive, therefore, there are three kinds of 
pronouns, viz. the personal, relative, and 
adjective pronouns. Adjective pronouns 
are of a mixed character, combining the na- 
ture of an adjective, and a pronoun; they 
consist of three classes, viz. the demonstra- 
tive, distributive, and indefinite pronouns. 
The demonstrative adjective pronouns, de- 
monstrate and agree with their nouns: the 
following is the list, viz. this, that, these, and 
those. The distributive adjective pronouns, 
distribute, and agree with their nouns; the 
following is the list, viz. each, every, either, 
and sometimes neither. The indefinite ad- 
jective pronouns, do not define but agree 
with their nouns: the following is the list, 
viz. some, one, any, other, all, such, and 
sometimes none, and own. 

I would remark that adjective pronouns, 
are sometimes used as nouns, in the room of 
persons, and parsed as such: I will give you 
an example, and conclude this brief lecture. 
Some prefer religion, others strive for wealth: 
in this example, some, and others, are inde- 



79 

finite adjective pronouns, used as nouns in 
the room of persons; of the common gender, 
they may express both sexes; third person, 
spoken of; plural number, they denote more 
than one object; and in the nominative case to 
the verbs prefer and strive — nominative case, 
denotes the actor or subject of the verb: 
Rule, nominative case governs the verb. 

QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE AD- 
JECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. Give the meaning of an adjective pro- 
noun? 

2. How many classes are there? 

3. Name the different classes? 

4. What is the use of the demonstrative 
adjective pronoun? 

5. With what does it asree? 

6. Give the list? 

7. What is the use of the distributive ad- 
jective pronoun? 

8. With what does it agree? 

9. Give the list? 

10. What is meant by an indefinite adjec- 
tive pronoun? 

11. With what does it agree? 

12. Give the list? 

13. How are adjective pronouns sometimes 
used? 



80 

14. Give the example that had in it adjec- 
tive pronouns? 

15. Parse the adjective pronouns in this 
example, and apply the rules in application 
to nouns? 



LECTURE ON THE PREPOSITION, 

Permit me now, to give you the lecture 
on the preposition. The preposition is a part 
of speech, which serves to connect words, 
and show the relation between them; as, with 
the lady from Boston. He lives on the in- 
terest of his money: in these examples, you 
perceive the preposition expresses the dif- 
ferent relations they sustain: I will now give 
you the list of prepositions, viz. of to for, 
by, ivithin, without, over, tinder, through, be- 
neath, between, from, beyond, at, near, up, down, 
off, on, or, upon, among, across, around, be- 
twixt, athwart, into, unto, underneath, except- 
ing, respecting, touching, concerning, through- 
out, over, against. I would remark, that the 
list contains nearly all the prepositions in the 
English language. Different relations are 
expressed by different prepositions. Exam- 
ple first: for I know that of me, that is of my 
flesh, proceedeth no good thing. Example 
second: for I know that of me, that is of my 



81 

flesh, dwelleth no good thing. In the first 
example, the prepositions of are injudicious- 
ly used; they should he from: in the second 
example, the prepositions o/are also injudi- 
ciously used, they should be in. A prepo- 
sition should always precede the noun or 
pronoun, which it governs; and should never 
close a sentence. Prepositions always gov- 
ern the objective case. Prepositions become 
adverbs, when they close a sentence, and do 
not govern the objective case: as, then came 
grey ey'd morning on. In the preceding ex- 
pie, on is an adverb; you perceive it closes 
the sentence, and does govern an objective 
case. I will give you the order of parsing a 
preposition: if you wish to parse a preposi- 
tion, you must say, it is a preposition, and 
tell why; you must say w r hat noun or pro- 
noun it governs. You perceive by this or- 
der very little can be said of prepositions: 
to make use of suitable prepositions, requires 
care and judgment. I will now finish this 
lecture by parsing a preposition, and give 
the rules agreeably to the order laid down. 
I went with John: with is a preposition, a 
part of speech which serves to connect words, 
and show the relation between them; it gov- 
erns the noun John: Rule, prepositions 
govern the objective case. 



82 

QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE PRE- 
POSITION. 
L Give the meaning of the preposition? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. What is expressed by the prepositions 
in those examples? 

4. Give the list of the prepositions? 

5. Are there any more prepositions in 
the English language? 

6. How are different relations expressed? 

7. Name the examples? 

8. Correct the prepositions in those ex- 
amples, 

9. How are prepositions placed in a sen- 
tence? 

10. Should prepositions close a sentence? 

11. What is required in making use of 
suitable prepositions? 

12. What case do prepositions govern? 

13. In what situation are prepositions pla- 
ced when they become adverbs? 

14. Name the example? 

15. Give the order of parsing a preposi- 
tion? 

16. Parse a preposition and give the rule 
agreeably to the order laid down? 



SI 



LECTURE ON THE ADVERB. 
Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
adverb. An adverb is a part of speech join* 
ed to verbs, participles, adjectives, and some- 
times to other adverbs, to limit or qualify 
their sense: as, she converses agreeably: he 
speaks correctly. In these examples agreea- 
bly and correctly are adverbs. Adverbs of 
quality end in ly. Adverbs may be known 
by their answering to the question howl whenl 
ivhere? fyc: as, how does the lady converse? 
the answer is, agreeably: how does the gen- 
tleman speak? the answer is, correctly. I 
would observe that there are several classes 
of adverbs, viz. those of number, order, 
place, time present, time past, time to come, 
time indefinite, manner or quality, doubt, 
affirmation, negation, interrogation, compa- 
rison. Of number; once, twice, thrice, &c; 
Of order; secondly, thirdly, fourthly, sixthly, 
&c: of place; here, there, someivhere, else- 
where, &c: of time present; now, &c: of 
time past; yesterday, lately, before, &c: of 
time to come; to-morrow, hereafter, &c: of 
time indefinite; oft, of ttimes, sometimes, &c: 
of manner or quality; justly, gracefidly, cor- 
rectly, &c: of doubt; perhaps, perchance, &c: 
of affirmation; yes, truly, &c: of negation; 
no, not, &c: of interrogation; how, why, &c: 



84 

comparison; more, most, alike, &c. I would 
observe that adverbs of quality are generally 
formed, by adding ly to the termination of 
adjectives, or changing le, into ly; as, tvise, 
tvisely; foolish, foolishly ; able, ably, &c. Ad- 
verbs have no grammatical connexion with 
any other parts of speech, except verbs, ad- 
jectives, participles, and other adverbs. The 
first example, is an adverb that qualifies a 
verb: as, the gentleman reads admirably: 
admirably is an adverb, and qualifies the verb 
reads: Rule, adverbs qualify verbs. The 
second example, is an adverb that qualifies 
an adjective: John is more amiable than his 
brother: here, the adverb more qualifies the 
adjective amiable: Rule, adverbs qualify ad- 
jectives. The third example is an adverb 
that qualifies a participle: the boy is writing 
correctly: correctly is an adverb, and quali- 
fies the participle writing: Rule, adverbs 
qualify participles. The fourth example, is 
an adverb that qualifies another adverb: the 
young lady walks very gracefully: here, 
gracefully is an adverb that qualifies the other 
adverb very: Rule, adverbs qualify other ad- 
verbs. I w ill now give you a general rule, 
for placing adverbs in speaking, and writing. 
Those adverbs which relate to adjectives, 
should always precede them: as, she is more 



85 

agreeable than the other. Those adverbs 
which relate to compound verbs, should be 
placed after the auxiliary: as, we should im- 
mediately confess our faults. It is frequent- 
ly difficult to distinguish between an adverb 
and an adjective; if quality is implied, we 
must use an adjective; if manner, we must 
use an adverb. Two negative adverbs can 
never be used in the same sentence; they de- 
stroy the negation, and render it affirmative: 
as, I do not know nothing about it; it should 
be; I do not know anything about it. 

Adjectives should not be used in the place 
of adverbs; it would therefore be incorrect 
to say: the lady walks graceful; it should be 
gracefully. Adverbs sometimes perform the 
office of conjunctions, and are called ad- 
verbial conjunctions: viz. again, also, since, 
when. The more, and the better, are gener- 
ally used as adverbial phrases. I will now 
give you the order of parsing an adverb: If 
you wish to parse an adverb, you must say, 
it is an adverb, and tell why; of what kind, 
what it qualifies, and apply the rule. I will 
now finish this lecture by parsing an adverb, 
agreeably to the order laid down: the gen- 
tleman reads admirably: admirably is an 
adverb; a part of speech joined to verbs, 
adjectives, participles, and other adverbs, to 



86 

limit or qualify their sense; it is an adverb of 
manner or quality, and qualifies the verb 
reads: Rule, adverbs qualify verbs. 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE 
ADVERB. 

1. Give the meaning of the adverb? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. What is the termination of adverbs of 
qualitj'? 

4. Give the rule to distinguish an adverb? 

5. Give an example in application to this 
rule? 

6. Name the different classes of adverbs? 

7. Name the adverbs of number? 

8. Name the adverbs of order? 

9. Name the adverbs of place? 

10. Name the adverbs of time present? 
] 1. Name the adverbs of time past? 

12. Name the adverbs of time to come? 

13. Name the adverbs of time indefinite? 

14. Name the adverbs of doubt? 

15. Name the adverbs of affirmation? 

16. Name the adverbs of negation? 

17. Name the adverbs of interrogation? 

18. Name the adverbs of comparison? 

19. How are the adverbs of quality formed? 

20. Name the examples? 

21. With what parts of speech have ad- 
verbs a connexion? 



87 

22. Give an example of the adverb that 
qualifies a verb and apply the rule? 

23. Give an example of the adverb that 
qualifies an adjective and apply the rule? 

24. Give an example of the adverb that 
qualifies a participle and apply the rule? 

25. Give an example of an adverb that 
qualifies another adverb and apply the rule? 

26. How are adverbs that relate to adjec- 
tives placed? 

27. Name the example? 

28. How are adverbs that relate to com- 
pound verbs placed? 

29. Name the example? 

30. How do you ascertain the use of ad- 
jectives? 

31. How do you ascertain the use of ad- 
verbs? 

32. Can two negative adverbs be used in 
the same sentence? 

33. Name the reason? 

34. Name a correct example? 

35. Should adjectives be used in the place 
of adverbs? 

36. Name the example and correct it? 

37. Name the adverbial conjunctions? 

38. What are the more and the better 
styled? 

39. Give the order of parsing an adverb? 



88 

40. Parse an adverb agreeably to the order 
laid down? 



LECTURE ON THE CONJUNCTION. 
Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
conjunction. A conjunction is a part of 
speech, which serves to connect words and 
sentences, so as out of two or more, to make 
but one: as, John and James are happy, be- 
cause they are virtuous: five and three are 
eight. I would observe, that there are two 
kinds of conjunctions; viz. the copulative, and 
disjunctive: I will give j^ou the list. The 
copulative conjunctions are, and, that, both 
for, therefore, wherefore, if, then, since, be- 
cause, provided, besides. The disjunctive 
conjunctions are, but, than, though, either, 
neither, or, as, unless, nor, lest, yet, notwith- 
standing, nevertheless, whereas, as well as. I 
would remark, that these are nearly all of 
the conjunctions in our language, and as it is 
a nice point in speaking or writing, to use 
conjunctions correctly, the student must re- 
view the list carefully, until he can distin- 
guish accurately between a copulative and 
disjunctive conjunction. Permit me to re- 
mark that a conjunction copulative connects 
and continues a sentence, by expressing ad- 
dition ot meaning; as, John will soon com- 



89 

mence the study of rhetorick and James 
learns Grammar: In this example, the copu- 
lative conjunction and, connects the two 
members of the sentence. The conjunction 
disjunctive connects and continues a sentence, 
by expressing opposition of meaning: as, 
though he is poor, yet he is contented. In 
this example, the conjunction disjunctive yet, 
makes the sentence compound, and expresses 
opposition of meaning. You perceive that 
as the conjunction is a connective part of 
speech; you will have no difficulty in parsing 
it. For if I say, Mary and Jane study, you 
know immediately that they both study; but 
if I say, Mary or Jane studies, it implies 
but one who studies. Conjunctions usually 
connect the same cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns: as, industry, perseverance, and fru- 
gality, will ensure wealth. You perceive in 
this example, three nouns are connected, by 
the copulative and; now if you can give the 
case of the first noun, of course you will be 
able to give the cases of those that follow; 
for I repeat, they must be in the same case. 
Conjunctions usually connect the same moods 
and tenses of verbs: as, "he opened his 
mouth, and taught them, saying." In this 
example, you are required to give the mood 
and tense of the verb taught; it is in the in- 
9 



90 

dicative mood, imperfect tense, connected 
back by the copulative conjunction and, to 
the verb opened, agreeing with it in the same 
mood and tense. I will now give you the 
order of parsing a conjunction. If you wish 
to parse a conjunction, you must say it is a 
conjunction, and tell why; copulative or dis- 
junctive, and why, and what it connects. I 
shall now finish this lecture, by parsing a 
conjunction, agreeably to the order laid down. 
John and James learn Grammar; and is a 
conjunction, a part of speech, which serves 
to connect words and sentences, so as out of 
two or more to make but one; copulative, it 
connects the two nouns, John and James,in the 
same case, according to the Rule, which says 
—conjunctions connect the same cases of 
nouns and pronouns, and the same moods 
and tenses of verbs. 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE CON- 
JUNCTION. 

1. Give the meaning of a conjunction? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. How many kinds are there? 

4. Name them? 

5. Give the list of the copulative con- 
junctions? 

6. Give the list of the disjunctive con- 
junctions? 



91 

7. Are these all of the conjunctions in 
our language? 

8. Why is it necessary to review the lists 
carefully? 

9. Give the meaning of a conjunction 
copulative? 

10. Name the example? 

11. Give the meaning of conjunction 
disjunctive? 

12. Name the example? 

13. Is the conjunction an easy part of 
speech to parse, and why? 

14. When Mary and Jane study what 
does it imply? 

15. When Mary or Jane studies what 
does it imply? 

16. Do conjunctions connect the same 
cases of nouns? 

17. Name the example and why? 

18. Do conjunctions connect the same 
moods and tenses of verbs? 

19. Name the example? 

20. Give the mood and tense of the verb 
taught? 

21. With what is it connected? 

22. Give the order of parsing a conjunc- 
tion? 

23. Parse a conjunction agreeably to the 
order laid down? 

24. Give the rule in applicatioi)? 



92 



LECTURE ON THE INTERJECTION* 
Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
interjection. An interjection is a part of 
speech, which expresses passion or emotion 
of the mind in the speaker: as, oh! that I 
could submit: alas! I fear that friendship is 
lost forever. In these examples oh and alas 
are interjections, they express emotion of 
the mind. There are several classes of in- 
terjections, which express different emotions: 
I will give you the list. Of earnestness, as, 
oh! ah! of grief, as, alas! &c, of wonder, as, 
really! strange! &c, of contempt, as, pish! 
tush! of disgust, as, fie! away! of attention, 
as, lo! behold! hark! of salutation, as, wel- 
come! hail! all hail! 

Permit me to remark, that the frequent use 
of interjections, is not to be recommended; 
they indicate thoughtlessness, rather than 
sensibility, and should be avoided. I would 
likewise remark, that there are sometimes, 
interjective phrases used; viz: The combi- 
nation of two or more words, to express emo- 
tion: as, away! ungrateful wretch. Impu- 
dence of hope! is also also an interjective 
phrase. I will now give you the order of 
parsing an interjection. If you wish to parse 
an interjection; you have only to say, it is an 



93 

interjection and tell why, and of what class. 
I will now conclude this brief lecture, by 
parsing an interjection, agreeably to the or- 
der laid down: Oh! death where is thy sting? 
Oh is an interjection of earnestness, a part 
of speech, which expresses passion or emo- 
tion of the mind, in the speaker, I scarcely 
need remark, that this part of speech is of 
less importance than any with which you have 
to do: you may, however, review this lecture 
until you can dispose of it with propriety, 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE IN- 
TERJECTION. 

1. Give the meaning of an interjection? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. What words in those examples are in- 
terjections? 

4. Name the different classes of interjec- 
tions? 

5. Name the class of earnestness? 

6. Name the class of grief? 

7. Name the class of wonder? 

8. Name the class of contempt? 

9. Name the class of disgust? 
10. Name the class of attention? 
1L Name the class of salutation? 

12. Why are not the frequent use of in- 
terjections recommended? 



94 

13. Give the meaning of an interjeetive 
phrase? 

14* Name the examples? 

15. Give the order of parsing an interjec- 
tion? 

16. Parse an interjection agreeably to the 
order laid down? 



LECTURE ON THE PARTICIPLE. 
Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
participle. The participle is a part of speech, 
derived from a verb, and partakes of the na- 
ture of a verb, and also of an adjective: as, 
teaching, believing, seeing; all these words 
are participles, derived from the verbs: teach, 
believe and see. Present participles may al- 
ways be known by their ending in ing, and 
derived from verbs; as, weeping. Permit 
me to remark, that there are three kinds of 
participles, viz. Present or active participles, 
perfect or passive participles, and compound 
perfect participles. Present or active partici- 
ples express an action continued, and always 
end in ing; as,running. Perfect or passive par- 
ticiples express the action as finished or com- 
pleted, and generally end in d, e, n, and t; 
as, learned, gone, written, brought. Com- 
pound perfect participles express the action 
as completed or finished^ before the time re- 



95 

ferred to, and are always formed, by adding 
the present participles having, or being, to 
the perfect participle, viz. having or being 
loved. 

Allow me to remark, that some authors on 
Grammar, parse this part of speech, as hav- 
ing connexion with others; we consider this 
however as unnecessary, and calculated only 
to make the study of Grammar more intri- 
cate. I would remark that all participles 
which are derived from verbs, will govern 
the objective case, the same as the verbs from 
which they are derived; as, believing John to 
be a good man. In this example John is in the 
objective case governed by the active parti- 
ciple believing, which has the same govern- 
ment as the verb believe, from which it is de- 
rived. Although present participles are al- 
ways known by their ending in ing, and 
compound perfect participles, by their form- 
ation, yet there is no definite rule to distin- 
guish perfect participles from regular verbs; 
this can only be ascertained by their having 
no government in the sentence: as, sent with 
despatches, he discharged his trust. If you 
parse this sentence, you will find no govern- 
ment for the verb sent; all you have to say 
about it is, that it is a perfect participle de- 
rived from the verb send. From the prece- 
ding observations you will perceive, although 



96 

participles are derived from verbs, yet we 
never give them mood and tense, &c. I will 
now give you the order of parsing a partici- 
ple. If you wish to parse a participle, you 
must say it is a participle, and tell why; pre- 
sent or active, perfect or passive, or com- 
pound perfect, and say from what it is deri- 
ved. I will now finish this lecture, by pars- 
ing a participle, agreeably to the order laid 
down: and he taught them saying, blessed 
are the poor in spirit: saying is a participle, 
a part of speech derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of 
an adjective; it is present or active, it ex- 
presses action as continued, and is derived 
from the verb .say. 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE PARTI- 
CIPLE. 

1. Give the meaning of a participle? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. From what verbs are these examples 
derived? 

4* How are present participles distin- 
guished? 

5. How many kinds of participles are 
there? 

6. Name them? 

7. Give the meaning of a present or ac- 
tive participle? 



97 

8. Name the example? 

9. Give the meaning of a perfect or pas- 
sive participle? 

10* Name the example? 

11. Give the meaning of a compound per- 
fect participle? 

12. How are compound perfect participles 
formed? 

13. Name the example? 

14. Do we parse participles as having a 
connexion with other parts of speech, and 
why? 

15. What case do participles which are 
derived from verbs govern? 

16. How do you distinguish a present par- 
ticiple? 

17 How do you distinguish a compound 
perfect participle? 

18. Is there any definite rule to distinguish 
perfect participles? 

19. Name the example? 

20. Parse the perfect participle in this 
example? 

21. Do we ever give mood, tense, &c. to 
participles? 

22. Give the order or parsing a participle? 

23. Parse a participle agreeably to the 
order laid down? 



98 



LECTURE ON THE ARTICLE. 

Allow me to give you the lecture on the 
article. An article is a part of speech pre- 
fixed to nouns, to limit their signification: as, 
a lady, an apple, the gentleman. I would 
observe, that there are but two articles in 
the English language: Jl or an is called the 
indefinite article; the is called the definite 
article: a or an is styled the indefinite arti- 
cle, because it points out a thing, in a gene- 
ral manner: as, a tree, an acorn. The is sty- 
led the definite article, because it points out 
the precise thing meant: as, the ship, the 
house. 

JL becomes an when it is used before a 
word beginning with a vowel or silent h, as, 
€tn apple, am eagle, an hour: a becomes an 
when it is used before a word, beginning 
with a silent h, and accented on the first syl- 
lable; as, an honorable man. There are ex- 
ceptions to these rules, however, for an must 
not be used before a word beginning with 
the vowel u, when it is sounded long, but a; 
as, a union &c: an must be used however, 
when the word begins with the vowel u, 
sounded short, as, an^ umbrella, an umpire: 
an must not be used, when the word begins 
with h 9 sounded full, but a, as, a heathen, a 



99 

heart, &c., an, must not be used, but a, after 
the words many and such; as, many a one, 
such a one. The definite article the, should 
always be placed before adjectives, represent- 
ing different qualities. It is therefore incor- 
rect to say, "the old and new testaments," 
because different qualities are implied, and 
here they are represented by one article; 
we should say, the old and the new testa- 
ment. A or an the indefinite article, will 
agree with nouns in the singular number 
only. 

The definite article the, may agree with a 
singular or plural noun. I will now give you 
the order of parsing an article. If you wish 
to parse an article, you must say it is an ar- 
ticle, and tell why; definite, or indefinite, and 
why; and say to what noun it refers. I will 
now finish this lecture by parsing an article: 
The gentleman is pursuing his journey: the 
is an article, a part of speech used to point 
out a noun; definite, it points out the precise 
thing meant, and refers to the noun gentle- 
man, and agrees with it, agreeably to rule, 
which says, the definite article the, may agree 
with a singular or plural noun. 



100 

QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE OF THE 
ARTICLE. 

1. Give the meaning of the article? 

2. Name the examples? 

3. How many articles are there in the 
English language? 

4. What is a or an called? 

5. What is the article the called? 

6. Give the meaning of the indefinite 
article. 

7. Name the example? 

8. Give the meaning of the definite ar- 
ticle? 

9. Name the example? 

10. When does the article a become an? 

11. Name the example? 

12. Name an example when a becomes an 
used before a word with a silent h, accented 
on the first syllable? 

13. Are there exceptions to this rule? 

14. When the word begins with the vowel 
u sounded long which must we use? 

15. Name the example? 

16. When a word is used with a vowel u 
sounded short which must we use? 

17. Name the examples? 

18. When a word begins with h sounded 
full which must we use? 

19. Name the example? 



101 

20. Is a or an used after the words many 
and such? 

21. Repeat the illustration? 

22. Should the definite article the be pre- 
fixed to adjectives which express different 
qualities. 

23. Name an example which is false, and 
correct it? 

24. Which of the articles are used before 
the singular noun only? 

25. Which may be used before the singu- 
lar or plural noun? 

26. Give the order of parsing an article? 

27. Parse the article agreeably to the or- 
der laid down? 

In the preceding lectures on Etymology, 
care has been taken to make the arrange- 
ment easy, and to condense the inflections of 
each part of speech, under one general head, 
so as to enable the student at one view, to 
dispose of each without difficulty. It may 
now be necessary to remark, that by chang- 
ing the position of words in a sentence, one 
single word may become several parts of 
speech, viz: a verb may become a noun, a 
noun a verb; an adjective may become a 
noun, and a noun an adjective; a preposition 
may become an adverb, and an adverb apre- 
10 



102 

position; a preposition may become a conjunc- 
tion, and a conjunction a preposition. 

Example 1. God is love: in this sentence, 
love is a noun, because it is used as a name. 
Example 2. Christians love one another: in 
this sentence, love is a verb, it implies ac- 
tion. Example 3. Providence rewards the 
good and punishes the bad: in this sentence 
good and bad, (usually adjectives,) are used 
as nouns, in the room of persons. Example 
4. A silver watch: in this sentence, silver is 
an adjective, for it expresses the quality of 
the watch, notwithstanding it is the name of 
a precious metal. Example 5. Now came 
grey ey'd morning on: in this sentence, on, 
although it is in the list of prepositions, is 
nevertheless an adverb, because it closes a 
sentence, and does not govern the objective 
case. Example 6. I bow my knee daily be- 
fore the God and Father of our Lord Jesus 
Christ: in this sentence, before is a preposi- 
tion, (although it is an adverb of time past;J 
you perceive it governs the objective case, 
and therefore must be a preposition. Exam- 
ple 7. For he who searcheth the heart, know- 
eth what is the mind of the spirit: in this 
sentence, for is a conjunction; you perceive 
it commences and continues the sentence, 
Example 8. For thee, I gladly sacrifice all 



103 

my worldly wealth: in this sentence, for is 
a preposition, although it is in the list of 
conjunctions; you perceive it is followed by 
a pronoun in the objective case. 

Note. The student will carefully review these examples and ob- 
servations, until he has a thorough knowledge of all the parts of 
speech, in whatever position they may be placed in a sentence. 



QUESTIONS ON THE PRECEDING EXAMPLES 

AND OBSERVATIONS. 
- 1. May one word become several parte of 
speech? 

2. Name the reason? 

3. Name the parts of speech which may 
he changed? 

4. Name the first example? 

5- Why is love a noun in the first exam- 
ple? 

6. Name the second example? 

7. Why is love a verb in the second ex- 
ample? 

8. Name the third example? 

9. Why are good and bad nouns in the 
third example? 

10. Name the fourth example? 

1 1 . Why is silver an adjective in the fourth 
example? 

12. Name the fifth example? 

13. Why is the word on, an adverb in the 
fifth example? 



104 

14. Name the sixth example? 

15. Why is the word before a preposition 
in the sixth example? 

16. Name the seventh example? 

17. Why is the word for a conjunction in 
the seventh example? 

18. Name the eighth example? 

19. Why is the word for a preposition in 
the eighth example? 

20. Why is it requisite to understand this 
lecture thoroughly, &c. 



105 



LECTURE ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Permit me to remark, that I am now about 
to introduce you to the third part of Gram- 
mar, viz: Syntax. 

If the student has carefully reviewed the 
preceding lectures on Etymology, or on the 
different parts of speech, together with the 
lectures on the conjugation of verbs, and the 
exercises and list of verbs, he will be prepar- 
ed to receive and understand the rules of 
Syntax, which teaches the agreement and 
government of language; and these rules 
which I shall place in lecture form, must be 
committed to memory, and you will then be 
able to proceed to the subsequent lectures 
and exercises, which will enable you to speak 
and write the English language with propri- 
ety. The following is a compend of the 
rules of Syntax, which constitute this lecture. 

Syntax treats of the concord, government, 
and arrangement of language. 

Rule 1. The nominative case governs the 
verb. 

2. The verb must agree with its nomina- 
tive case in person and number. 

3. Nouns or pronouns signifying posses* 

10* 



106 

sion in the possessive case, are governed by the 
nouns they possess, or the following noun. 

4. Two or more nouns, or pronouns, in 
the singular number connected by a copula- 
tive conjunction, must have verbs and pro- 
nouns in the plural number to agree with 
them. 

5. Two or more nouns or pronouns in 
the singular number connected by a disjunc- 
tive conjunction, must have verbs and pro- 
nouns in the singular number to agree with 
them. 

6. When two or more nouns of different 
numbers, are connected in the same sentence, 
by a disjunctive conjunction, the verb or pro- 
noun must agree with that which stands near- 
est to it. 

7. A noun of multitude may have a verb 
or pronoun to agree with it, in the singular 
or plural number: if unity of idea is implied, 
it requires a singular verb: if plurality, a 
plural verb. 

8. The imperfect tense of a verb must 
not be used with an auxiliary, unless the im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle are the 
same. 

9. The perfect participle of a verb must 
not be used without an auxiliary. 

10. An auxiliary verb can never be used 
with a defective verb. 



107 

11. All verbs expressive of hope, desire, 
intention, or command, must be followed by 
the present tense of the infinitive. 

12. Verbs following let, bid, dare, make, 
see, feel, hear, need, &c., are in the infinitive 
mood without the sign to prefixed. 

13. Every adjective and adjective pro- 
noun, must agree with a noun expressed or 
understood. 

14. Pronouns must agree with their an- 
tecedents and nouns for which they stand, 
in gender, number, and person. 

15. The relative is the nominative case to 
the verb, when no nominative comes be- 
tween it and the verb, but when the nomi- 
native comes between it and the verb, it is 
governed by the following verb, or some 
word in its own member of the sentence. 

16. Adjectives must not be used in the 
place of adverbs; If quality is implied we 
must use an adjective, but if manner, we use 
an adverb. 

17. Adverbs should be placed in that posi- 
tion which will render the sentence, the 
most perspicuous and agreeable: Those 
which relate to adjectives, should be placed 
before them, and those which relate to com- 
pound verbs, are generally placed after the 
auxiliary. 



108 

18. Two adverbs of negation, can never 
be used in English, in the same sentence; 
they destroy one another and are equivalent 
to an affirmative. 

19. Active verbs, active participles, and 
prepositions, govern the objective case. 

20. Conjunctions usually connect the same 
cases of nouns and pronouns, and the same 
moods and tenses of verbs. 

2L Nouns or pronouns, following than, as, 
or but, are nominative to a verb, or govern- 
ed by a verb or preposition, expressed or 
understood. 

22. The neuter verb to be, (or its inflec- 
tionsj admits the same case after it as before 
it. 



QUESTIONS ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

1. What does the nominative case gov- 
ern? 

2. With what must a verb agree? 

3. With what are nouns and pronouns in 
the possessive case governed? 

4* With what do nouns and pronouns 
connected by a copulative conjunction agree? 

5. With what do nouns, or nouns and 
pronouns connected by a disjunctive con- 
junction agree? 

6. When two or more nouns of different 



109 

numbers are connected by a disjunctive con- 
junction in the same sentence, with which 
must the verb agree? 

7. With what verbs do nouns of multi- 
tude agree? 

8. What verb is required with a noun of 
multitude, if unity of idea is implied? 

9. What verb is required with a noun of 
multitude, if plurality is implied? 

10. Can we use the imperfect tense of a 
verb with an auxiliary? 

11. Are there any exceptions to this rule, 
and name them? 

12. Can we use the perfect participle of a 
verb without an auxiliary? 

13. Can we use auxiliary verbs with defec- 
tive? 

14. What verbs are followed by the pre- 
sent tense of the infinitive mood? 

15. Name the verbs which are in the in- 
finitive mood without the sign to being pre- 
fixed? 

16. With what do adjectives and adjective 
pronouns agree? 

17. Name the fourteenth rule? 

18. Name the fifteenth rule? 

19. Are adjectives used in the place of ad- 
verbs? 

20. When quality is implied what is used? 



no 

21. When manner or circumstance is im- 
plied what is used? 

22. How are adverbs placed? 

23. How are those which relate to adjec- 
tives placed? 

24. How are those which relate to com- 
pound verbs placed? 

25. Are two negative adverbs used in the 
same sentence in English, and why not? 

26. Name the twentieth rule? 

27. Name the twenty-first rule? 

28. Name the twenty-second rule? 

29. What parts of speech govern the ob- 
jective case? 

The preceding questions on the Rules of 
Syntax, must be rehearsed, until every one 
can be answered correctly, and then the stu- 
dent may proceed to parse the following ex- 
ercises. 

Exercises for parsing, with the rules and 
definitions, agreeable to the order laid down. 

Example 1. John, envy abhor; John is a 
noun, the name of a person; proper, it is the 
name of an individual; masculine gender, it 
denotes an object of the male kind; second 
person, spoken to, singular number, it de- 
notes but one object; and is in the nomina- 
tive case independent. Rule, when a di- 
rect address is made, the noun addressed is 



Ill 

put in the nominative case independent: ab- 
hor is a verb, a part of speech which signi- 
fies action, suffering, or being; active, it ex- 
presses action; transitive, the action passes 
over from the agent to an object; regular, it 
will form its imperfect tense and perfect 
participle, in the indicative mood, with the 
addition of ed; it is in the imperative mood, 
it commands, entreats, or permits a second 
person to do a thing, and agrees with thou, 
understood, in the second person singular 
number, agreeably to rule second, which 
says, a verb must agree with its nominative 
case in person and number. Envy is a noun, 
the name of a person, place or thing; com- 
mon, it is the name of a sort or species; neu- 
ter gender, it does not express sex; third 
person, it is spoken of; singular number, it 
denotes but one object; and is in the objec- 
tive case, governed by the active verb abhor, 
agreeably to rule nineteenth which says, ac- 
tive verbs, active participles and prepositions 
govern the objective case. 

Example 2. John having gone, we return- 
ed: John is a noun, the name of a person; 
proper, a name given to an individual; mas- 
culine gender, it denotes an object of the 
male kind; third person spoken of; singular 
number, it denotes but one object; and is in 



112 

the nominative case absolute, according to 
rule, which says, nouns or pronouns standing 
before a participle, independent of the rest 
of the sentence, are put in the nominative 
case absolute; having gone, is a compound 
perfect participle, derived from the verb to 
go; we is a pronoun, a part of speech used 
instead of a noun; personal, it denotes per- 
sons; first person, it denotes the speakers; 
plural number, it expresses more than one 
object, and is in the nominative case to the 
verb returned; the nominative case denotes 
the actor or subject of the verb: returned is 
a verb, a part of speech which signifies ac- 
tion, suffering or being; active, it expresses 
action; intransitive, the action is confined to 
an agent, and does not pass over to an object; 
regular, it will form its imperfect tense and 
perfect participle in the indicative mood, 
with the addition of ed; indicative mood, it 
simply indicates or declares a thing; imper- 
fect tense, it denotes past time, and is in the 
first person plural number, because its nomi- 
native ive is, with which it agrees, according 
to rule second, which says, a verb must agree 
with its nominative case in person and num- 
ber. 

Example 3. Susan and Mary converse 
agreeably: Susan and Mary are nouns, the 



113 

frames of persons; proper, names given to 
individuals; feminine gender, they denote 
objects of the female kind; third person, they 
are spoken of; plural number, they express 
more than one object; and in the nominative 
case, to the verb converse; the nominative 
case denotes the actor or subject of the verb; 
and, is a conjunction, a part of speech, which 
is used to connect words and sentences; co- 
pulative, it connects and continues the sen- 
tence by addition of meaning, and connects 
Susan and Mary in the same case, according 
to rule twentieth* which says, conjunctions 
usually connect the same cases of nouns and 
pronouns, and the same moods and tenses of 
verbs; converse is a verb, a part of speech 
which signifies action, suffering, or being; 
active, it expresses action; intransitive, the 
action is confined to the agents, and does not 
pass over to an object; regular, it will form 
its imperfect tense and perfect participle, in 
the indicative mood, with the addition of ed; 
and is in the indicative mood, it simply in- 
dicates or declares a thing; present tense, it 
denotes present time; and is in third person 
plural number, because the nominatives with 
which it agrees, are connected by a copula- 
tive conjunction, according to rule fourth, 
etc.: agreeably is an adverb, a part of speech 
u 



114 

which qualifies verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and other adverbs; it is an adverb of manner 
or quality, and qualifies the verb converse: 
Rule, adverbs qualify verbs. 

Example 4. Sarah or Caroline learns che- 
mistry. Sarah is a noun, the name of a per- 
son; proper , the name of an individual; femi- 
nine gender, denotes an object of the female 
kind; third person, spoken of; singular num- 
ber, expresses but one object; and in the nom- 
inative case to the verb learns; Caroline is 
a proper noun, of the same gender, person 
and number as Mary, and ki the same case 
agreeably to rule twentieth: nominative 
case, denotes the actor or subject of the 
verb; or, is a conjunction, a part of speech 
which is used to connect words and senten- 
ces; disjunctive, it expresses opposition of 
meaning and implies that but one learns; 
learns, is a verb, a part of speech which ex- 
presses action, suffering, or being; regular, 
it will end in ed; in past time, active, it ex- 
presses action; transitive, the action passes 
over from the agent to an object; indicative 
mood, it simply indicates or declares a thing; 
present tense, it denotes present time; and 
is in the third person, singular number, be- 
cause its nominatives, with which it agrees, 
are disjunctively connected, according to 



115 

rule fifth, etc.: chemistry is a noun, the name 
of a thing; proper, it is the name of an indi- 
vidual thing; neuter gender, it does not ex- 
press sex; third person, spoken of; singular 
number, it denotes but one object; in the ob- 
jective case, it is the object of the active 
verb learns; according to rule nineteenth, 
which says, active verbs, active participles, 
and prepositions, govern the objective case. 
Example 5. The multitude have dispersed: 
the is an article, a part of speech used to 
point out a noun; definite, it defines multi- 
tude, the precise thing meant, and agrees 
with it; Rule, the definite article the may 
agree with a singular or plural noun; multi- 
tude is a collective noun, implying plurality 
of idea; of the common gender, it may ex- 
press both sexes; third person, it is spoken 
of; plural number, it expresses more than 
one object; and is in the nominative case to 
the verb have dispersed; the nominative case 
denotes the actor or subject of the verb; have 
dispersed'^ a compound verb, a part of speech 
which expresses actioa, suffering or being; 
active, it expresses action; intransitive, the 
action is confined to the agent and does not 
pass over to an object; regular, it forms its 
imperfect tense and perfect participle, in the 
indicative mood, by the addition of ed; indi- 



116 

cative mood, it simply indicates or declares 
a thing; perfect tense, it represents the ac- 
tion as completed or finished, and agrees 
with its nominative multitude in the third 
person, and is of the plural number, agreea- 
bly to rule seventh. 

Example 6. He who made us, is eternal: 
he is a pronoun, a word used instead of a 
noun; personal, it relates to persons; third 
person, spoken of; singular number, it ex- 
presses but one object; and is in the nomina- 
tive case to the neuter verb is, one of the in- 
flections of the verb to be; nominative case, 
it denotes the actor or subject of the verb; 
'who, is a relative pronoun and relates to he, 
for its antecedent, and agrees with it in num- 
ber and person, according to rule fourteenth, 
which says; pronouns must agree with their 
antecedents, etc: and is in the nominative 
case to the verb made, according to rule fif- 
teenth, which says; the relative is the nomi- 
native case to the verb, when no nominative 
comes between it and the verb, etc; made is 
a verb, a part of speech which signifies ac- 
tion, suffering, or being; active, it expresses 
action; transitive, the action passes over from 
the agent to an object; irregular, it will not 
form its imperfect tense and perfect partici- 
ple in the indicative mood with i addition of 



117 

d or ed; indicative mood, it simply indicates 
or declares a thing; imperfect - tense, it de- 
notes past time; third person singular num- 
ber, because its nominative is, with which it 
agrees, according to rule second, a verb must 
agree with its nominative case, in person and 
number; vis is a pronoun, a word used in- 
stead of a noun; personal, it relates to per- 
sons; first person, it denotes the person 
speaking; plural number, it expresses more 
than one object; and is in the objective case, 
the object of the active transitive verb made; 
according to rule nineteenth, active verbs, 
active participles and prepositions govern 
the objective case; is is a verb, a part of 
speech which expresses action, suffering or 
being; neuter, it expresses neither action or 
passion, but being or a state of being; indi- 
cative mood, it simply indicates or declares 
a thing; present tense, it denotes present 
time, and is in the third person singular num- 
ber, because its nominative he is, with which 
it agrees, according to rule second, etc.: eter- 
nal is an adjective, a part of speech which 
expresses the quality of a noun; it is in the 
superlative degree; it will not admit of com- 
parison; and belongs to the pronoun he. 

Note. As a pronoun is a word which 
merely supplies the place of a noun, the in- 
11* 



118 

telligent student will readily perceive that 
an adjective may qualify it in the same man- 
ner as it does the noun for which it stands. 

Note. The student will observe in the above 
examples, that I have been particular, in lay- 
ing down all the rules and definitions for 
parsing; he will therefore, frequently and 
carefully rehearse them, until this method 
of parsing, becomes familiar to his mind, af- 
ter which, he majf proceed to the following 
exercises, without the definitions, which is 
the usual method, after becoming perfectly 
acquainted with the preceding manner. 

Examples for parsing, corresponding to 
every rule of Syntax, without the definitions; 
and allow me to remark, that the following 
exercises may not at the commencement of 
each example, correspond with the rule, 
nevertheless, wherever the word or phrase 
corresponds with the rule in order, the ap- 
plication will be made. 

Example 1. John studies logic: John is a 
proper noun, masculine gender,, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case to the 
verb studies, according to rule first, which 
says, the nominative case governs the verb. 

Example 2. Is there a lady? Is is a neuter 
verb, indicative mood, present tense, third 
person singular, because its nominative lady 



119 

is, with which it agrees, according to rule 
second, which says, a verb must agree with 
its nominative case in person and number. 

Example 3. Mary's harp is in fine order: 
Mary's is a noun proper, feminine gender, 
third person, singular number, possessive 
case, governed by the noun harp, according 
to rule third, which says, nouns or pronouns 
signifying possession, are governed by the 
nouns they possess, or the following noun. 

Example 4. Mary and Susan improve their 
time: improve is a regular active transitive 
verb, indicative mood, present tense, third 
person, plural number, because its nomina- 
tives Mary and Susan, with which it agrees, 
are connected by a copulative conjunction, 
according to rule fourth, which says, two or 
more nouns or nouns and pronouns in the 
singular number, connected by a copulative 
conjunction, must have verbs and pronouns 
to agree with them, in the plural number; 
their is a personal pronoun, third person 
plural number, possessive case, correspond- 
ing to the same rule. 

Example 5. Mary or Susan improves her 
time: improves is a regular active transitive 
verb, indicative mood, present tense, third 
person, singular number, because its nomi- 
native Mary or Susan is connected by a dis- 



120 

junctive conjunction, according to rule fifth, 
which says, two or more nouns or nouns and 
pronouns in the singular number, connected 
by a disjunctive conjunction, must have verbs 
and pronouns, in the singular number to 
agree with them; her is a possessive person- 
al pronoun, corresponding to the same rule^ 
etc. 

Example 6. The pupils or the teacher has 
made a mistake: here, pupils and teacher are 
nouns connected by a disjunctive conjunction; 
consequently teacher, being next to the verb, 
the verb has made agrees with it in the sin- 
gular number, according to rule sixth, which 
says, when two or more nouns of different 
numbers are connected in the same sentence, 
by a disjunctive conjunction, the verb or 
pronoun must agree with that which stands 
nearest it 

Example 7. The audience have assembled: 
audience is a noun of multitude, implying 
plurality of idea, and is in the nominative 
case to the verb have assembled. The navy 
is in readiness: navy, is a noun of multitude, 
implying unity of idea, and corresponds to 
the verb is, in the singular number. These 
two examples agree with rule seventh, which 
says, a noun of multitude may have a verb 
or pronoun to agree with it in the singular 
or plural number, etc* 



121 

Example 8. I saw a man: saw is a verb, in 
the imperfect tense, used with propriety 
without an auxiliary, according to rule eighth, 
which says, the imperfect tense of a verb, 
must not be used with an auxiliary, unless 
the imperfect tense and perfect participle 
are the same. 

Example 9. I have seen a man: seen is the 
perfect participle of the verb to see, used 
correctly with an auxiliary according to rule 
ninth, which says, the perfect participle 
of a verb can never be used without an 
auxiliary. 

Example 10. I ought to go, instead of I 
had ought to go: ought is a defective verb, 
correctly applied in the former sentence; 
had ought, is incorrectly applied, because 
the auxiliary and defective verbs are con- 
nected, which can never be the case accord- 
ing to rule tenth, which says, an auxiliary 
verb can never be used with a defective verb. 

Example 11. I intended to go to Philadel- 
phia last week: here, to go is a verb in the 
infinitive mood, present tense, governed by 
the verb intended, and corresponds to rule 
eleventh, which says, all verbs expressive of 
hope, desire, intention or command, must be 
followed by the present tense of the infini- 
tive mopd, 



122 

Example 12. Let me proceed: here the 
verb proceed, is in the infinitive mood pre- 
sent tense, without the sign to being prefixed, 
according to rule twelfth, which says, verbs 
following let, bid, dare, make, see, feel, hear, 
need, are in the infinitive mood, without the 
sign to prefixed. 

Example 13. That beautiful lady excites 
admiration: that is a demonstrative adjective 
pronoun, and defines lady, and agrees with 
it; beautiful is an adjective in the positive 
state, and agrees with lady according to rule 
thirteenth, which says, every adjective and 
adjective pronoun, must agree with a noun 
expressed or understood. 

Example 14. He is a man that has seen ad- 
versity; that is a relative pronoun; you can 
change it into who without destroying the 
sense, and relates to man as its antecedent; 
masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, and corresponds to rule fourteenth, 
which says, pronouns must agree with their 
antecedents, and the nouns for which they 
stand in gender, number and person. 

Example 15. They who are industrious 
and frugal, generally succeed in amassing 
wealth: who is a relative pronoun in the 
nominative case to the verb are, agreeably 
to the former part of rule fifteenth, which 
£ays, the relative is the nominative case to 



123 

the verb, when no nominative comes between 
it and the verb; 

Example 16. She whom I love, is beauts 
fuli here* a nominative comes between the 
relative and the verb; whom, the relative 
pronoun, therefore, is governed by the verb 
love, according to the latter part of rule fif- 
teenth, which says, when a nominative comes 
between the relative and the verb, the rela- 
tive is governed by the following verb or 
some word in its own member of the sen- 
tence. 

Example 17. The gentleman speaks cor- 
rectly: here, the adverb correctly, is used 
with propriety and qualifies the verb speaks. 

Note. If we say, the gentleman speaks 
correct, we use an adjective, and consequent- 
ly violate rule sixteenth, which says, adjec- 
tives should not be used in the place of ad- 
verbs. 

Example 18. We should immediately con- 
fess our faults: here, immediately is an ad- 
verb, and qualifies the verb should confess, 
placed after the auxiliary verb should, ac- 
cording to rule seventeenth, referred to after 
the next example. 

Example 19. He is a more benevolent man 
than his neighbour: here, more is an adverb, 
and qualifies the adjective benevolent, and is 



124 

placed before it according to rule seventeenth, 
which says, a verb should be placed in that 
position which will render the sentence the 
most perspicuous and agreeable; those which 
relate to adjectives, should be placed before 
them, and those which relate to compound 
verbs, are generally placed after the auxilia- 
ry. Rule eighteenth is illustrative of false 
Syntax, and consequently does not come un- 
der these exercises. 

Example 20. James and John taught rhe- 
torick, and lectured on natural philosophy: 
and is a copulative conjunction, connecting 
James and John in the nominative case; 
taught and lectured, are verbs, connected to- 
gether by the copulative conjunction and, in 
the indicative mood imperfect tense, accord- 
ing to rule twentieth, which says, conjunc- 
tions usually connect the same cases of nouns 
and pronouns, and the same moods and tenses 
of verbs. 

Example 21. And all went merry as the 
marriage bell. In this example the noun 
bell, is in the nominative case to the verb 
goes understood; according to rule twenty- 
first, which says, nouns or pronouns follow- 
ing than, as or but, are nominative to a verb, 
or governed by a verb or preposition, ex- 
pressed or understood. 



125 

Example 22. He is John: he is a personal 
pronoun and nominative ease to the verb is, 
one of the inflections of the neuter verb to be; 
John is a noun in the nominative case after 
the verb is. I took him to be John: here, 
John is in the objective case after the neuter 
verb to be, and must be, because the pro- 
noun him, which precedes the verb, is in the 
objective case. These two examples corres- 
pond with rule twenty-second, which says, 
the neuter verb to be, (or its inflexions) has 
the same case after as before it. 

Example 23. I saw a lady: here, the noun 
lady is in the objective case, the object of an 
action of the active verb saw. Introducing 
a lady: here, the noun lady is in the objec- 
tive case, the object of the active participle 
introducing. I went with a lady: here, the 
noun lady is in the objective case, the object 
of a relation expressed by the preposition 
with, and governed by it. These examples 
correspond to rule nineteenth, which says, 
active verbs, active participles, and preposi- 
tions, govern the objective case. 

Note. The student will immediately per- 
ceive, by attending carefully to the pre- 
ceding exercises, that he can never be at a 
loss, in the agreement or government, of any 
part of speech, corresponding to every rule 



12 



126 

of Syntax laid down; and permit me now to 
introduce you to the following exercises of 
false Syntax, and why they are false, correct- 
ed according to rule. 

Exercises of false Syntax, corresponding 
to every important rule, corrected accord- 
ing to the rules laid down. 

Example 1 . James and John, who was here 
yesterday, intends to call next week: In this 
example was and intends, are ungrammatical, 
because James and John are nouns, connect- 
ed by a copulative conjunction, and must 
have verbs and pronouns in the plural num- 
ber, to agree with them; was and intends, are 
in the singular number, consequently, rule 
fourth is violated; they should be were and in- 
tend, in the plural number. 

Example 2. Mary or Susan were convers- 
ing, but their language was inelegant: were 
is ungrammatical, it should be was, because 
Mary or Susan are nouns, connected by a 
disjunctive conjunction, and should have 
verbs and pronouns in the singular number, 
to agree with them, and xoere is plural; their 
is ungrammatical, it should be Iter, because 
Mary or Susan are nouns, connected by a 
disjunctive conjunction, and should have 
verbs and pronouns in the singular number 
to agree with them, and their is plural; 
hence rule fifth is violated. 



127 

Example 3. Congress are in session: are 
is ungrammatical, it should be is, because its 
nominative congress, is a noun of multitude, 
implying unity of idea, and should have a 
singular verb to agree with it, and are is plu- 
ral; therefore rule seventh is violated. 

Example 4. The congregation has adjourn- 
ed: has is ungrammatical, it should be have, 
because its nominative congregation, is a 
noun of multitude, implying plurality of idea, 
and must have a verb in the plural number 
to agree with it, and has is in the singular; 
therefore rule seventh is again violated, 

Example 5. I had went with John, before 
the arrangement was made: had went is un- 
grammatical, it should be went, because the 
imperfect tense of a verb can never be used 
with an auxiliary, unless the imperfect tense 
and perfect participle are the same; the aux- 
iliary verb had being joined to the imperfect 
tense of the verb, is a violation of rule eighth. 

Example 6. I seen him: this expression is 
ungrammatical; it should be have seen, be- 
cause seen is the perfect participle of the 
verb to see, and can never be used without 
an auxiliary verb, as had or have before it; 
therefore rule ninth is violated. 

Example 7. I intended to have gone to 
town, but was prevented: to have gone is uu* 



128 

grammatical, it should be to go, because the 
verb is expressive of intention, and the ac- 
tion being present, or the intention being 
present with the speaker, should be follow- 
ed by the present tense of infinitive mood; 
and to have gone is in the perfect tense; 
therefore rule 12th is violated. 

Example 8. The lady who reads correct, 
writes correct, and speaks correct, is pos- 
sessed of three accomplishments: correct is 
ungrammatical, it should be correctly, because 
you can never use adjectives in the place of 
adverbs; therefore, in the preceding exam- 
ple, rule sixteenth is violated. 

Example 9. I have thought seriously upon 
that subject: here, the adverb seriously is 
injudiciously placed; it should be immediate- 
ly after the auxiliary verb; hence rule seven- 
teenth is violated. 

Example 10. The lady called for informa- 
tion, but I did not know nothing about it: 
in this sentence, you perceive two negative 
adverbs are used, which renders the mean- 
ing affirmative; it should be, I knew nothing 
about it; hence the sentence is ungrammati- 
cal, and rule eighteenth is violated. 

Example 1 1 . He and me are on good terms: 
me is ungrammatical, it should be 1, because 
he is in the nominative case, connected by a 



129 

copulative conjunction, which must connect 
nouns and pronouns in the same case; there- 
fore rule twentieth is violated. 

Example 12. I see and have known, that 
his deportment is without blemish: have known 
is ungrammatical, it should be know, because 
the verb see is in the present tense, and con- 
junctions connect the same moods and tenses 
of verbs; therefore rule twentieth is again 
violated. 

Example 13. I believe John to be he : he 
is ungrammatical, it should be him, because 
the noun John, which precede the neuter 
verb to be, is in the objective case; conse- 
quently the pronoun which follows the neu- 
ter verb, should be in the objective case, and 
he is in the nominative; therefore rule twen* 
ty-second is violated. 

Example 14, Many men of equal talents, 
differs in reference to things of minor impor- 
tance: differs is ungrammatical for two rea- 
sons, first, because its nominative men is in 
the plural number, and should have a plural 
verb to agree with it, and differs is a singu- 
lar verb; you may perhaps inquire how I 
know ihztdiffers is a singular verb? I answer 
because the process of forming plural nouns, 
and plural verbs is diametrically opposite; 
in forming plural nouns the $ is added to the 
12* 



130 

singular, but to form a plural verb the s is 
taken away; therefore rule second is violated. 

Note. Allow me to remark, that the pre- 
ceding examples of false Syntax, are gene- 
rally illustrative of the errors committed, in 
speaking and writing the English language: 
I have endeavored to explain them in the 
most familiar manner, and have given the 
rule in application to each example. By 
carefully reviewing these exercises and ex- 
planations, the student will be able to correct 
false language, and show why it is false; also 
he may promptly detect errors in speaking 
or writing, whenever they may occur to his 
view. 

Note. I have selected the following ex- 
amples of Scripture language as exercises 
for parsing, that the student may, at sight, 
parse according to grammatical construction. 

1. "Then came together unto him the 
Pharisees and certain of the Scribes, which 
came from Jerusalem." 

Grammatical construction for parsing. 

"Then the Pharisees came together unto 
him and certain of the Scribes which came 
from Jerusalem." 

Then is an adverbial conjunction: the is a 
definite article and defines Pharisees: Phari- 
sees is a noun, the nominative case to the 



131 

verb came: came is an irregular active in- 
transitive verb indicative mood imperfect 
tense, and agrees with its nominative Phari- 
sees in person and number: together is an 
adverb and qualifies the verb came: unto is 
a preposition and influences the pronoun 
him: him is a personal pronoun in the ob- 
jective case governed by the preposition 
unto: and is a copulative conjunction con- 
necting certain, (meaning the Scribes) and 
Pharisees in the same case: o/is a preposi- 
tion and influences Scribes: the is a definite 
article and defines Scribes: Scribes is a noun 
in the plural number, and is in the objective 
case governed by the preposition of: which 
is a relative pronoun and relates to Pharisees 
and Scribes as its antecedents, and is in the 
nominative case to the verb came: came is 
an irregular active intransitive verb, indica- 
tive mood imperfect tense, and agrees with 
its nominative which: from is a preposition 
and influences the noun Jerusalem: Jerusa- 
lem is a noun in the objective case governed 
by the preposition from. 

2. "Go ye, therefore, and teach all nations, 
baptizing them in the name of the Father, 
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." 

The construction of the foregoing sen- 
tence is according to grammatical usage. 



132 

Go and teach are irregular active verbs, 
the latter being transitive, connected to- 
gether by the copulative conjunction and in 
the imperative mood, present tense, and 
agree with their nominative ye in person 
and number: ye is a personal pronoun in the 
nominative case to the verbs go and teach: 
therefore is an adverb and qualifies the verb 
go: all is an indefinite adjective pronoun, it 
does not define but agrees with its noun: 
nations is a noun in the objective case govern- 
ed by the active verbs go and teach: bap- 
tizing is a present participle, derived from 
the verb to baptize: them is a personal pro- 
noun in the objective ease, governed by the 
present or active participle baptizing: in is 
a preposition and influences the noun name: 
tke is a definite article and defines nam$: 
name is a noun in the objective case govern- 
ed by the preposition in: Father, Son and 
Holy Ghost, are nouns, connected by the 
copulative conjunction and in the objective 
case and governed by the preposition of. 

3- "I must work the works of him that 
sent me, while it is called to-day." 

/ is a personal pronoun and is in the 
nominative case to the verb, mast work: 
must ivork is a regular active transitive verb, 
potential mood present tense, and agrees 



133 

with its nominative J in person and number: 
the is a definite article and defines the noun 
works: works is a noun in the objective case 
governed by the active verb must work: of 
is a preposition and influences the pronoun 
him: him is a personal pronoun in the objec- 
tive case and governed by the preposition 
of: that is a relative pronoun (you can change 
it into who,) and in the nominative case to 
the verb sent: sent is an irregular active 
transitive verb in the indicative mood im- 
perfect tense, and agrees with its nominative 
that in person and number: me is a personal 
pronoun in the objective case, and governed 
by the active Verb sent: while is an adverbial 
conjunction: it is a personal pronoun and is 
in the nominative case to the verb is called: 
is called is a regular passive verb indicative 
mood present tense and agrees with its nomt* 
native it in person and number: to-day is an 
adverb of time present and qualifies the 
verb is called, 

A. "If we have sown unto you spritual 
things, is it a great thing if we shall reap 
your carnal things." 

If is a copulative conjunction: we is a 
personal pronoun in the nominative case to 
the verb have sown: have sown is an irregular 
active transitive verb, in the indicative mood 



134 

perfect tense and agrees with its nominative 
we, in person and number: unto is a preposi- 
tion and influences the pronoun you: you is 
a personal pronoun in the objective case and 
governed by the preposition unto: spiritual 
is an adjective in the positive state, and ex- 
presses the quality of things: things is a noun 
in the objective case governed by the active 
verb have sown: it is a personal pronoun, 
and in the nominative case to the neuter 
verb is: is is one of the inflections of the 
neuter verb to be, in the indicative mood, 
present tense, and agrees with its nominative 
it, in person and number: a is an indefinite 
article and belongs to thing: great is an ad- 
jective in the positive state, and expresses 
the quality of thing: thing is a noun in the 
nominative case after the neuter verb is: if 
is a copulative conjunction: we is a personal 
pronoun, and in the nominative case to the 
verb, shall reap: shall reap is a regular active 
transitive verb, in the subjunctive mood, 
first future tense, and agrees with its nomi- 
native we: your is a possessive personal pro- 
noun, and governed by the noun things: 
carnal is an adjective in the positive state, 
and expresses the quality of the noun things: 
things is a noun in the objective case, and 
governed by the active verb shall reap. 



135 

5* "And it came to pass when Jesus had 
ended these sayings, the people were as- 
tonished at his doctrine/' 

And is a copulative conjunction: it is a 
personal pronoun in the nominative case to 
the verb came: came is an irregular active 
intransitive verb, indicative mood, imperfect 
tense, and agrees with its nominative it, in 
person and number: to pass is a verb in the 
infinitive mood present tense, and governed 
by the verb came: when is an adverbial con- 
junction: Jesus is a noun in the nominative 
case to the verb had ended: had ended is a 
regular active transitive verb,indicative mood, 
pluperfect tense, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive Jesus, in person and number: these is a 
demonstrative adjective pronoun, and de- 
monstrates sayings: sayings is a participle 
noun in the objective case, and goverried by 
the active verb had ended: the is a definite 
article and defines people: people is a noun 
in the nominative case to the verb were 
astonished: were astonished is a regular pas- 
sive verb, in the indicative mood, imperfect 
tense, and agrees with its nominative people, 
in person and number: at is a preposition 
and influences doctrine: his is a possessive 
pronoun and governed by the noun doctrine: 
doctrine is a noun in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition at. 



136 

Examples of false Syntax corresponding 
to rule second; a verb must agree with its 
nominative case in number and person. The 
following examples are violations of this rule. 

Example 1. We know that there is suffi- 
cient reasons for the assertion. We know 
that there are, etc. 2. The person is com- 
petent who have undertaken the business: 
who has undertaken, etc. 3. A man shouldst 
be virtuous to be happy: should etc. 4. You 
was in the wrong to give a taunting reply: 
were in the wrong, etc. 5. Though thou 
cannot be rich yet thou may be happy: 
canst, and mayst, etc. 6. The flowers in 
bloom is not lovelier than a virtuous woman: 
are not, etc. Unanimity of sentiment and 
action in conjugal life, make it agreeable. 
The blessings we receive is from a divine 
and munificent hand. The attribute of rea- 
son distinguish men from the lower order of 
animals. The precept of the Bible is indis- 
pensably necessary to man's salvation. The 
smiles of wicked men is not worthy of our re- 
gard. The advice of wise and intelligent men 
are to be diligently sought. He that would be 
rich, fall into divers temptations and snares. 
The invention of labour saving machinery, 
are of vast importance to mankind. The 
population of the United States, amount 



137 

nearly to twelve millions. In the action of 
the State Legislature, a mixture of imbecili- 
ty and rashness were very notorious. Men 
in the possession of religion, dares to be sin- 
gular from the world. Great minds is rare- 
ly to be met with. The summer heat act 
upon creation. All men has not the same 
genius and enterprise. Your opinions is so- 
licited to the following observations. The 
generous never recounts the actions they 
have done, nor the prudent those they will 
do. The best composition sometimes con- 
tain a small degree of common sense. The 
march of improvement make rapid strides in 
North America. The support of so many 
of his relations were a heavy tax upon his 
industry, but thou knows he paid it cheerful- 
ly. What is the morals of the Hindoos, when 
compared to those of the Christians. The 
riches of this world does not make men hap- 
py. The men of the world seeks their hap- 
piness in things of a perishing character. 
The variety of the productions of genius like 
that of the operation of nature are without 
limit. Quiet minds enjoys a sweet content. 
The measure of faith that worketh by love 
purify the heart. The arguments of a pre- 
judiced mind, is generally based on false pre- 
mises. In general men of genius and virtue, 

13 



138 

holds the higher ranks in societ}/. Cruelty 
to animals indicate a heart void of moral 
sensibility. The prayers of the righteous is 
before the throne of God. 

Examples of false Syntax corresponding 
to rule fourth. Two or more nouns or nouns 
and pronouns in the singular number connected 
together by a copidative conjunction, expressed 
or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns, agreeing with them in the plural num- 
ber. The preceding rule is often violated as 
in the following examples. 

L What signifies the counsel and care of 
preceptors, etc. 2. Wisdom and virtue is 
the noblest traits in the character of man. 
3. Slothfulness and negligence is a promi- 
nent source of all our woes. Meekness, tem- 
perance, and patience, is the handmaids of 
religion. The happiness and peace of socie- 
ty, depends upon the cultivation of morals 
and religion. Perseverance and industry, 
with a sound judgment, surmounts every ob- 
stacle. The rich and honorable of this 
world, appears to little advantage without 
knowledge. The conversation and example 
of wise and intelligent men, is beneficial to 
youth. The cares and anxiety of this world 
shuts out religion from the heart. Why 
should it be thought strange that both the 



139 

king and the subject pursues pleasure as their 
chief good. Time and tide waits for no man* 
Death and judgment comes upon all men. 
Envy and pride in its practical exhibition, 
ruins the characters of man. Cicero and 
Demosthenes was the greatest orators that 
ever lived. If, in this life, riches and honour 
increases, men are apt to stray from the path 
of virtue. In the attainment of polite accom- 
plishments, music and poetry holds a promi- 
nent rank. The happiness and misery inci- 
dent to human nature, is given to man to fill 
up the measure of this life. Vice and folly 
in the character of man, is detestable. The 
inquisitive and curious is generally talkative* 

Examples of false Syntax corresponding 
to rule fifth. Two or more nouns, or nouns 
and pronouns in the singular number, connect- 
ed by a disjunctive conjunction, must have verbs 
and pronouns in the singular number to agree 
zvith them. The following examples are vio- 
lations of the preceding rule. 

1. James or John who were here yester- 
day intend to call to-morrow. A circle or a 
square are the same in idea. Neither white- 
ness nor redness are in the porphyry. Nei- 
ther the one nor the other of them are re- 
markable for precision. Man is not such a 
machine as a clock or a watch, which move 



140 

merely as they are moved. Wisdom or vir- 
tue elevate man in society, and they make 
him respected. When sickness, infirmity, or 
reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of 
friendship is proved. The sun or moon are 
in the solar system, and they give light and 
heat. Despise no infirmity of mind or body, 
nor any condition of life, for they may be 
thy own lot. The time or talent of vicious 
men, are generally given to vile purposes. 
The prince or his minister, were blamewor- 
thy. Neither Charles nor William have ar- 
rived. Either he or she left their umbrella. 
Ignorance or negligence have caused this 
mistake. Why should it be thought strange 
that brother or friend deserted him? Let it 
be remembered, that it is not the uttering or 
the hearing of certain words, that constitute 
the worship of the Almighty. A tart reply, 
a proneness to rebuke, or a captious and con- 
tradictious spirit, are capable of embittering 
domestic life, and of setting friends at vari- 
ance. There are many faults in spelling, 
which neither analogy nor pronunciation jus- 
tify. 

The following examples correspond to 
rule sixth, which says, nouns of multitude or 
collective nouns, may have verbs and pronouns 
to agree with them, either in the singular or 
plural number. 



141 

Note. When a nominative or subject is 
presented, the verb should agree with that 
which immediately presents itself to the mind: 
if unanimity of idea is implied a verb in the 
singular number must be used; but if plural- 
ity, a verb in the plural number must be used: 
as, the people were with one accord in one 
place; in this example a number of persons 
is immediately suggested to the mind; it is 
therefore proper to use a plural verb, 

Example 2. The assembly has adjourned 
sine die. In this example one body is pre- 
sented, and therefore a singular verb must 
be used. The following examples in appli- 
cation to this rule are to be corrected. The 
populace clamours for his blood. The flock, 
and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the 
objects of the shepherds care. The navy of 
the United States exceed more than forty 
sail of vessels. The multitude was collected 
together for riotous purposes. The corpo- 
ration of Baltimore consist of a Mayor and 
Council. The French government are a 
limited monarchy. The Congress of the 
United States are composed of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. The yeomanry 
of the west is brave and patriotic. When 
the nation complain, the rulers should listen 
to their voice, The standing army of the 
13* 



142 

United States, are few in number. The 
Church have no power to inflict corporal 
punishment. The fleet which were to sail 
for the Mediterranean, have been counter- 
manded. The collection of ancient coins are 
of immense value. The meeting have ad- 
journed until next month. The Chamber of 
Deputies, a branch of the French govern- 
ment, are composed of men of great intelli- 
gence. The council were in great haste to 
break off negotiations. The convention have 
adjourned to meet in Washington on the 
fourth of March, 1811. The conference of 
ministers are deliberating on business of 
great importance to the church. The church 
of Rome consist of Pope, Cardinals, Bishops, 
Priests, &c. The laity of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, in the United States, ex- 
ceeds seven hundred thousand. The yearly 
meeting of the Quakers, are now convened 
in Baltimore. The Presbyterian Synod 
hold their session in May. The committee 
was divided in its sentiments, and it has re- 
ferred the business to the general meeting. 
One generation are passed and another are 
come. The remnant of the people were per- 
secuted with great severity. The lower or- 
der of society are industrious and enterpriz- 
ing. The peasantry of England is not well 



143 

informed in matters of self-government, A 
coalition between the sovereigns of Europe 
are formed against France. 

Note. It maj* be proper to observe, that 
the application of the verb, in many instan- 
ces, is quite arbitrary; that which is convey- 
ed to the mind by the nominative or subject, 
whether implying unity or plurality, should 
be used, as it will not be a departure from 
grammatical usage. 

The following examples correspond to 
rule third, which says, nouns or pronouns sig- 
nifying possession, in the possessive case, are 
governed by the nouns they possess, or the fol- 
lowing noun. 

My father's house is large and well 
built. The draper's company exceeds one 
hundred and twenty men. Eliza's harp 
was a splendid piece of workmanship. The 
lady's fortune exceeds one hundred thousand 
dollars. His voice was heard amid the cla- 
mours of the people. There sat the lady 
and her daughter. My ancestor's virtue is 
not mine. His brother's offence will not con- 
demn him, My own opinion is, that the af- 
fair will be settled to the satisfaction of all 
parties. I will not destroy the city for ten's 
sake. 

Note* When a number of nouns are an- 
nexed in the same sentence, the latter noun 



144 

is to be written in the possessive style, and 
the apostrophe and letter s are to be reject- 
ed in the former, as in the following exam- 
ples, John and Mary's property. This 
was my brother, sister and mother's instruc- 
tion, Peter, James and John's opinion was 
confirmed. This measure gained the king's 
as well as the parliament and people's ap- 
probation. David and Jonathan's affection 
was of the purest kind. Not only the coun- 
sel and attorney's but the judge's opinion 
favored his cause, His aunt and uncle's de- 
cision was final. The student will correct 
the following examples, show why they are 
false and apply the rule. It is the children's 
and parent's misfortune to suffer affliction. 
Paul's and Silas's occupation was preaching 
the gospel. The star's and moon's light was 
dimly seen. 

The following examples correspond to rule 
fifteenth, which says, the relative is the nomi- 
native case to the verb, when no nominative 
comes between it and the verb, but when the 
nominative comes between the relative and the 
verb, it is governed by the following verb, or 
some word in its own member of the sentence. 

They who have instructed us in the ways 
of righteousness are they whom we should 
respect and whom we should esteem and ad- 



145 

mire. Our tutors are our benefactors, to 
whom we owe obedience and whom we ought 
to love. The persons with whom you dis- 
pute^ are precisely of your opinion. Men of 
fine talents are not always the persons whom 
we should esteem. A beautiful lady without 
mind or accomplishments, is not the person 
on whom we should place our affections. He 
who made us is eternal, and should be loved 
and adored. The following examples are to 
be corrected; show why they are false and 
apply the rule. If he will not hear his best 
friend, whom shall be sent to admonish him. 
If the Creator should withhold the bounties 
of Providence, who should we look to for 
subsistence. They who much is given to, 
will have much to answer for. They that 
are vicious in their actions, are they who we 
should endeavour to shun. They who have 
laboured to make us wise and good, are the 
persons who we ought to love and respect, 
and who we ought to be grateful to. The 
only true God, and Jesus Christ, who he has 
sent,are they who we ought to love and adore. 
From the character of those who you asso- 
ciate with, your own will be estimated. 

The following exercises correspond to rule 
nineteenth, which says, active verbs, active 
participles, and prepositions govern the objec- 
tive case. 



146 

The student will observe, that in the Eng- 
lish language, the nominative or subject 
generally precedes the verb, and the objec- 
tive or object follows the verb, and it this 
order that usually determines the case in 
nouns: as, "Alexander conquered the world." 
But when a sentence is expressed by the in- 
troduction of pronouns in the nominative and 
objective cases, it may sometimes happen and 
indeed it is not a violation of grammatical 
form, to place the objective pronoun before 
the verb, and the nominative following the 
verb: as, whom ye therefore ignorantly wor- 
ship him declare I unto you. Active transi- 
tive verbs govern the objective case; as fol- 
lows: I knew him to be a man worthy of my 
confidence, John and James study philoso- 
phy and rhetorick. Congress passed a law- 
prohibiting the importation of various arti- 
cles of luxury. 

Active participles govern the objective case; 
as follows: She was introducing Sophia to 
the company, when I entered the room. 
Believing him a man of his word, I confident- 
ly relied upon the assertion. Flying kites 
is one of the prominent pastimes of youth. 
Receiving information, he immediately left 
town. Pursuing his game too far, he entan- 
gled himself in difficulties, Writing compo- 



147 

sition is the best method to improve in pub- 
lic speaking. Teaching school is laborious, 
and saps the foundation of health. Preposi- 
tions govern the objective case; as follows: 
They are supported by industry. They tra- 
velled from Baltimore to Philadelphia in 
nine hours. They were introduced by the 
gentleman. Without doubt he will be here 
at nine o'clock. Within a mile of the city 
we were met by the robbers. Under the 
bridge was concealed the stolen treasure. 
On the wall was suspended a variety of ex- 
quisite paintings. The following examples 
are violations of the preceding rules to be 
corrected; show why they are false. Es- 
teeming theirselves wise they become fools. 
I suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was 
studious to avoid all intercourse. Observing 
not only they but he to be in iault I sharply 
reproved them. Pliny, speaking of Cato the 
Censor's disapproving of the Grecian orators, 
expressed himself thus. Why are not men in 
the pursuing an occupation more industrious 
and enterprising. The example of they who 
have been virtuous and good should be fol- 
lowed. This was in fact a converting the 
deposite to his own use. 

The following exercises correspond to 
rule seventeenth, which says, adverbs should 



148 

he placed in that position which will render the 
sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable: 
Those which relate to adjectives should he pla- 
ced before them, and those which relate to com- 
pound verbs, are generally placed after the 
auxiliary. 

In the following examples the adverb re- 
lates to compound verbs are appropriately 
placed. 

We should immediately and without re- 
serve confess our faults. They have al- 
ready exceeded my most sanguine expec- 
tations. I was certainly mistaken in the 
calculation. The person who does not 
submit to the precepts of Christianity, com- 
mits violence to his soul. The follies of men 
are fully exhibited, when they turn a deaf 
ear to the counsels of truth. In the follow- 
ing examples, the adverbs relate to adjectives 
and are judiciously placed. The gentleman 
who was introduced, is a truly honorable 
man. She is a most amiable lady and pos- 
sessed of fine accomplishments. The man- 
sion which is being built, is a very splendid 
establishment. He is a more learned man 
than his brother. That ably conducted jour- 
nal was gotten up by a gentleman of superior 
talents. In the following examples the ad- 
verbs relates to participles, and are correctly 



149 

placech I saw a ship approaching rapidly 
with all sail set. Rising early we beheld the 
sun in majestic splendour near the horizon. 
Generally speaking, the conduct of James is 
more to be applauded than that of his brother. 
Writing beautifully is an elegant accomplish- 
ment. In the following examples the ad- 
verbs are injudiciously placed and must be 
corrected according to rule. I saw the gen- 
tleman and he was indisposed severely. 
William nobly acted though he was unsuc- 
cessful. We may happily live though our 
possessions are small. From whence we 
may date likewise the period of this event. 
It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, there- 
fore, to remonstrate. It was perceived clear- 
ly that James was the abler man of the two. 
These things should be never separated. 
The noble animals were swiftly running. 
We should confess our faults immediately 
and without hesitation. He was determined 
to invite back the king and to call together 
his friends. The young lady admirably 
played on the piano forte. The gentleman, 
determining wisely to be firm and unyield- 
ing, received approbation. So well edu- 
cated a boy gives great hopes to his friends. 
The operations of nature are ordered wisely 
for the benefit and happiness of men. We 

14 



150 

always should prefer our duty to our plea- 
sure. The youth exposed foolishly himself 
to danger. The glass of man's life will run 
out soon. The heavenly bodies are in mo- 
tion perpetually. It is impossible continu- 
ally to be at work. How important it is to 
treasure immediately up the moments allotted 
to us. It is too common with mankind, to 
be engrossed and overcome totally by pre- 
sent events. He has merited fully the cen- 
sure of all good men. They have acted in 
the estimation of their country nobly. 

The following examples are violations of 
Rule eighteenth, which says, two negative 
adverbs can never be used in English in the 
same sentence; they destroy one another, 
and are equivalent to an affirmative. I do 
not know nothing about the matter, and there- 
fore am unable to give an opinion. Neither 
riches nor honors, nor no such perishing 
goods, can satisfy the desires of an immortal 
spirit. We need not nor do not confine his 
operations to narrow limits* Never was no 
man laboring under such apprehension of 
disease. I am resolved not to comply with 
the proposal, neither at present nor at any 
other time. Do not interrupt me yourself, 
nor let no one disturb my retirement. These 
people do not judge wisely, nor take no 



151 

proper measure to effect their purpose. We 
should not never be employed in matters 
which do not concern us. There cannot be 
nothing more insignificant than vanity. The 
affair would not amount to nothing after all. 
Nothing never affected her so much as this 
misconduct of her child. The King nor the 
Queen was not all deceived in the business. 

The impropriety of the preceding ex- 
amples may be seen by the following exer- 
cises which are in accordance with gram- 
matical usage, and where two negatives make 
an affirmative: That piece of composition is 
not ungrammatical. The lady sustains a 
good character and never speaks untrue. 
The horse was not unmanageable in the har- 
ness or under the saddle. The speech was 
not inelegantly delivered^ and merited praise. 
The great convention held in Baltimore was 
not composed of unthinking men. The con- 
versation was not unkind, although it was so 
represented. 

Note. The student will perceive that all 
the preceding sentences are affirmative, ex- 
pressed by two negatives. 

Exercises corresponding to Rule thir- 
teenth: Every adjective, and adjective pro- 
noun, must agree with its noun expressed or 
understood, The following examples are 



152 

violations of this rule, and may be sufficient 
to show the student the importance of using 
adjective pronouns correctly. 

I have had no acquaintance with him this 
nine months. I have not travelled this 
twenty years. These kind of indulgencies 
cause imbecility and negligence. Instead of 
improving yourselves, you have been play- 
ing this two hours. Those sort of favors 
did real injury, under the appearance of 
kindness. Those breach of promises are 
very prevalent among men of vicious habits. 
The chasm made by the earthquake was 
twenty foot broad and one hundred fathom 
in depth. The wall by measurement was 
found to be twenty foot in height. He saw 
one or more persons enter the garden. 

Note. The student by refering to the 
lecture on the verb, will perceive that some 
remarks have been made in reference to the 
different parts of speech which govern verbs 
in the infinitive mood, and it may now be 
necessary to say, that verbs in the infinitive 
mood, are governed by verbs, nouns, adjectives, 
participles. 

The following examples will serve as il- 
lustrations: I never knew that man do an 
action that would not bear inspection. He 
that hath ears to hear let him hear. And it 



153 

came to pass on the morrow, &c. Refusing 
to act upon the question the meeting was 
adjourned. I saw him do it, therefore my 
assertion is correct. Verbs in the infinitive 
mood corresponding to bid, dare, let, make, 
need, feel, hear, see, &c. may with propriety 
be used without prefixing the sign to: as, I 
heard him say it I bade him do it. Ye 
dare not do it. Thou lettest him go. I 
need not solicit him, He made him feel it. 
I saw him perform it Verbs in the infini- 
tive mood or parts of a sentence may be 
used with propriety as nouns and put in the 
nominative case to other verbs: as, To see 
the sun rising in majestic splendour, is a 
glorious sight To use language with pro- 
priety and elegance, indicates a studious 
habit. To run the race of christians in the 
gospel sense, insures happiness here and 
eternal life hereafter. To maintain a steady 
and unbroken mind amid the reverses of 
fortune, marks a great and noble spirit 



14* 



154 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES 
Of false language usual in speaking and 
writing, for the exercise of the student, to 
be corrected according to rule. 

Example 1. They who have walked in the 
paths of wisdom, are they who we should 
follow and respect, and who we should esteem. 

2. I have thought on my ways, and found 
it very imperfect. 

3. John and me was in conversation, but 
was interrupted. 

4. John or James are engaged in the 
study of music. 

5. I am acquainted with the gentleman 
intimately. 

6. My engagements are such, that I can- 
not be there by four o'clock. 

7. The gentleman speaks incorrect. 

8. Some one has lost their hat. 

9. I was invited to dine with a friend, 
and concluded I had ought to go. 

10. I examined the wall, and find it to be 
seven foot thick* 

11. Sing the two first and two last verses, 
of the 119th Psalm. 

12. The difference is settled between him 
and I. 



155 

13. Every word, every sentence, and 
every syllable, are correctly applied. 

14. Jane is the tallest of the two. 

15. He speaks now of the best offices in 
the State. 

16. The signs of the times is gloomy in 
the extreme. 

17. I am in want of a new pair of shoes. 

18. Seven, and eight, and nine, is twenty- 
four* 

19. The lady converses correct, and the 
conversation is calculated admirably to im- 
prove the mind. 

20. His logical deductions, convinces all 
the powers of our understandings. 

21. Who does this house belong to? 

22. You may believe me or no, just as you 
please. 

23. What is latitude and longitude? 

/ 24. I know of no man, which would be 
guilty of such an action* 

25. The people of which you spake, has 
not made their appearance. 

26. Great pains has been taken, to study 
brevity in all its parts. 

27. Who was you speaking to? 

28. Wisdom, virtue and happiness, is much 
to be desired. 

29. Ten and ten makes twenty. 



156 

30. The Lord who you seek, will come 
suddenly to his temple. 

31. He and me is connected intimately. 

32. If it was to do over again, I should 
not be so hasty. 

33. He has been tried for his life, never- 
theless persist in crime. 

34. Why is not all men religious? because 
it restrains their passions. 

35. And there was voices, and thunders, 
and lightnings* 

36. And the woman were arrayed in pur- 
ple and scarlet color. 

37* I can't get my own consent for to go. 

38. And every island fled away, and the 
mountains was not found. 

39. My friend and me called at a store, 
and examined a beautiful piece of cloth. 

40. Pride and envy exists in the unre- 
sjenerate heart. 

41. The Old and New Testaments contains 
all that is necessary for our happiness here 
and hereafter. 

42. When the spring time returns, the 
birds cheerfully sings. 

43. The wind and rain penetrates to my 
skin. 

44. When assembled worlds unites in one 
general mass, conflicting passions will seize 
on every breast. 



157 

45. And he which sat on the cloud, thrust- 
ed in his sickle. 

46. If I only can get riches, it will make 
me happy. 

47. She and me descanted much on the 
excellency of my sister's guitar. 

48. See that none renders evil for eviL 

49. If a man errs, let it be on the side of 
truth. 

50. Temperance and patience is commen- 
dable in all, and should be exercised con- 
stantly. 

51. Why has the men been disappointed? 
because they lack perseverance. 

52. They have drank sufficient; more 
would be an injury to them. 

53. I seen the men running, as if their 
lives was at stake. 

54. Every moment had ought to be em- 
ployed in the great science of salvation. 

55. I could not believe but what he was 
there, and determined to know for myself. 

56. The horse who runs swift, should be 
prized high. 

57. The man which aims at wit 3 must be 
careful to use it on proper occasions. 

58. The man and his wife is continually 
wrangling, and his children is ragged and 
dirty. 



158 

59. Blessed is the dead who die in the 
Lord. 

60. The style and diction is not only inel- 
egant, but obscure, and the sentences is too 
long. 

61. Why is men engaged so busily in the 
pursuit of wealth? when it must all perish 
in the using. 

62. Rain never or seldom falls at Lima, 
yet the dew supplies its place. 

63. Neither he or his brother were there, 
consequently no arrangement could be made. 

64. Either him or I were mistaken, and I 
am sure it was not me. 

65. What reasons is sufficient to induce 
man to procrastinate his return to God. 

66. Mary is acquainted with me sufficient- 
ly to know that my intentions is sincere. 

67. Of old have thou laid the foundations 
of the earth, 

68. The heavens is the work of thy hands. 

69. Time and tide waits for no man. 

70. Of all crimes which exists in the world 
ingratitude is the basest, 

71. Idleness and dissipation is to be dread- 
ed, more than a poisonous serpent. 

72. Virtue and happiness, is the handmaids 
of religion. 

73. Pride, envy or malice, are rottenness 
in men's bones, 



159 

74. The drunkard and glutton is not un- 
fitly compared to a sow in the mire. 

75. Bigotry and superstition was the rul- 
ing principle of former ages. 

76. I am disappointed in not having the 
company of Miss S. to tea. 

77. Where is the books that was packed 
up in the box? 

78. The vessel and her crew, is all ready 
to proceed on her voyage. 

79. The ships sails at the rate of seven 
miles per hour. 

80. Both industry and frugality is neces- 
sary to accumulate wealth. 

81. For the weapons of our warfare is not 
carnal. 

82. Buonaparte was ambitious more than 
any Frenchman of his time. 

83. Cicero or Demosthenes were more 
eloquent than any orator of antiquity. 

84. The American Navy, have won laurels 
for the nation. 

85. My skin is black upon me, and my 
bones is burned with heat. 

86. The free schools in the United States, 
is among the most laudable institutions of the 
country. 

87. The asylum for the blind in New 
York, contain sixty-four pupils. 



160 

88. Benevolent institutions is praisewor- 
thy, and contributes largely to the comforts 
of the distressed. 

89. Great men is not always wise, neither 
do the aged always exercise judgment. 

90. The Deaf and Dumb Asylum of Phil- 
adelphia, are under the supervision of bene- 
volent men. 

91. Short settlements makes long friends. 

92. One of the men are here, and wishes 
to see you. 

93. There is a river, the streams whereof 
makes glad the city of God. 

94. The princes of the people is gathered 
together. 

95. Search the Scriptures, for they are 
them which testify of me. 

96. I know not but what I shall go to 
Philadelphia next week. 

97. He done it to please me, and I com- 
plied with our agreement. 

98. All the days of the afflicted is evil. 

99. My nights is spent in groanings and 
tossings. 

100. England, France, and Germany, is 
the most enlightened nations in Europe. 

Note. The student will observe, that the 
preceding exercises, are falsely constructed; 
they must be carefully reviewed, until every 



161 

sentence can be made correct language ac- 
cording to rule; and when he can parse lan- 
guage correctly, according to grammatical 
construction, he may then proceed to the 
more pleasing, but more difficult exercises 
in parsing. 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES, 

'For the exercise of the Student in parsing. 

They perfume their garments. A per- 
fume is a sweet odour. They rise early in 
the morning. The Venetians were original- 
ly a maratime nation. The government of 
the United States exercises a liberal policy. 
Liberty and equality prevailed in France, in 
the reign of Robespiere. James improves 
because he attends to his studies. He may 
have known him in the days of his youth. 
Knowest thou not that I am a Roman by 
birth? If it were to do over again I should 
not act thus. A rise sometimes signifies the 
beginning. Quiet minds enjoy a sweet con- 
tent. Appearances often deceive mankind. 
Rufus speaks the language of truth. James 
performed his part well. A w r ell is a foun- 
tain of water. A well man is one who 
enjoys his health. We frequently walk in 
the garden. The Jews fast very often. He 
15 



m 

Walks very fast. The refuse signifies the 
worthless remains. Joseph's brethren came 
and bowed down before him. John went af- 
ter his book. The man that I saw was exe- 
cuted* That man that you met yesterday in 
the street, was taken and sent to Boston, that 
he might have an impartial trial. We assist- 
ed him both for your sake and our own. John 
left after William came. Evil communica- 
tions corrupt good manners. Corrupt con- 
versation is both foolish and sinful. Sin is 
a moral evil, and the cause of natural evils. 
He might have known if he had taken pains 
to inform himself. The Jews were a stiff 
necked people. Protest not rashly, lest thou 
have to repent of it. A protest is a solemn 
declaration against a thing. Strange things 
have taken place to-day. Do nothing rash- 
ly, lest thou precipitate thyself into inextri- 
cable difficulty. Hasty promises are fre- 
quently neglected. Where much is given, 
much will be required. Future time is yet 
to come. He trusted him, for he knew that 
he would not deceive him. Both the men 
are guilty. Although he reproves me, yet 
I esteem him. All but John and James 
came. This is but doing our duty. He call- 
ed me, but I refused to go. Let such as hear 
take heed. He did as I directed him, but 



163 

it was improperly constructed. You may 
take either the one or the other- Either road 
will conduct you to the right place. If he 
has commanded it, then I must obey. Susan 
is determined to learn. By framing excuses 
he prolonged his stay. The man who is 
faithfully attached to religion may be relied 
on with confidence, He works for me. He 
refused what was sent him. He saw strange 
things during the course of his journey. In 
what manner he succeeded is unknown to 
me. What! will you take my life. The more 
we have, the more we want. The more joy 
I have, the more sorrow I expect. The most 
obedient children are the happiest. Much 
labour fatigues me. Virtue and vice are op- 
posites. When his father asked him that ques* 
lion, he heard hinr, but refused to answer* 



164 



TRANSPOSITION. 

Permit me to remark, that transposition 
in Grammar is taking difficult language, such 
as blank verse or poetry, and placing it in 
the natural way, or mode of speaking, ac- 
cording to grammatical construction. This 
is a difficult exercise, and not intended for 
the young student, until he can parse lan- 
guage correctly,, in its natural form; indeed, 
no one can do this, unless he correctly un- 
derstands the meaning of a subject, or the 
language to be transposed. When he feels 
competent to analyze a paragraph, or the 
subject of an author, the following rules will 
guide him in transposition. 

Rule 1. The article is to be placed first in 
order. 

2. The adjective must be placed before 
the noun, of which it expresses the quality. 

3. The noun or pronoun in the nomina- 
tive case, must be placed before the verb 
which it governs. 

4. The verb, if active transitive, must be 
placed before the object of the action which 
it governs. 

5. Adverbs must be placed next to the 
verb, of which they limit or qualify the sense. 



165 

6. When a noun or pronoun is addressed 
in the nominative case independent, O, should 
be placed before the noun or pronoun ad* 
dressed. 

7. Every elipsis must be supplied, 

EXAMPLE T. 

"My mother! when I learn'd that thou wast dead, 

Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed] 

Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son] 

Wretch even then, life's journey just begun; 

I heard the bell toll'd, on thy burial day, 

I saw the -hearse that bore thee slow away, 

And turning from my nursery window, drew 

A long, long sigh, and wept a last adieu." — Cowper* 

TRANSPOSED, 
Oh my mother! when I learned that thou 
wast dead, say thou, wast thou conscious of 
the tears which I shed? and thy spirit, did 
it not hover over thy sorrowing son? who 
was a wretch even then, notwithstanding 
life's journey had just begun: I heard the 
bell tolPd on the day of thy burial, and I 
saw the hearse, which bore thee slowly away, 
and then turning from my nursery window, 
I drew a long sigh, and wept a last adieu. 

EXAMPLE II, 
"Long hast thou wander'd in a stranger's land, 
A stranger to thyself and to thy God; 
The heavenly hills were oft within thy view, 
And oft the shepherd calPd thee to his flock, 
15* 



166 

And call'd in vain. — A thousand monitors 
Bade thee return, and walk in wisdoms ways, 
The seasons as they rolPd bade thee return; 
The glorious sun in his diurnal round 
Beheld thy wanderings and bade thee return; 
The night, an emblem of the night of death, 
Bade thee return; the rising mounds, 
Which told the traveller where the dead repose 
In tenements of clay, bade thee return; 
And at thy father's grave, the filial tear 
Which dear remembrance gave, bade thee return, 
And dwell in virtue's tents on Zion's hill I 
Here thy career be stayed rebellious man! 
Long hast thou liv'd a cumberer of the ground, 
Millions are shipwreck'd on life's stormy coast, 
With all their charts on board, and powerful aid, 
Because their lofty pride disdain'd to learn 
Th' instructions of a pilot, and a God." 

TRANSPOSED. 
Thou hast wandered a long time in a stran- 
ger's land, and thou hast been a stranger to 
thyself, and a stranger to thy God; the hea- 
venly hills were often within thy view, 
and the shepherd called thee to his flock, and 
he called thee in vain, A thousand monitors 
bade thee to return, and to walk in wisdoms 
ways. The seasons bade thee to return as 
they rolled, and the glorious sun beheld thy 
wanderings in his diurnal round, and bade 
thee to return; and the night, and the em- 
blem of the night of death, bade thee to re- 



167 

turn; and the rising mounds, which told the 
traveller, where the dead repose in tene- 
ments of clay, bade thee to return; and the 
filial tear, which at thy father's grave flowed, 
from dear remembrance, bade thee to re- 
turn, and to dwell in virtue's tents on Zion's 
hill ! here then, let thou thy career be stay- 
ed, rebellious man! for thou hast lived a long 
time as a cumberer of the ground. Millions 
of men are wrecked on life's stormy coast, 
with all their charts on board and powerful 
aid, because their lofty pride disdained to 
learn the instructions, of a pilot, and of a 
God. 

EXAMPLE III. 

"Eternal hope! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time, 
Thy joyous youth began: — but not to fade. 
When all the sister planets have decayed: 
When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, 
And heaven's last thunder shakes the world below; 
Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile. 
And light thy torch at nature's funeral pile!" 

TRANSPOSED. 
Ol eternal hope! thy joyous youth began, 
when yonder sublime spheres pealed their 
first notes, to sound the march of time: — but 
it began not to fade. Thou shalt smile un- 
dismayed over the ruins, and light thy torch 
at nature's funeral pile, when all the sister 



168 

planets have decayed, and when the glowing 
realms of ether are wrapt in flames, and 
heaven's last thunder shakes the world below. 

EXAMPLE IV. 
"Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name, 
thy kingdom come, thy will b-e done on earth, as it is 
done in heaven, give us this day our daily bread, and for- 
give us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass 
against us, lead us not into temptation, but deliver us 
from evil, for thine is the kingdom, the power, and the 
glory, forever and ever* Amen." 

TRANSPOSED. 
Our Father who art in heaven, let thou 
thy name be hallowed, and let thou thy king- 
dom come, and let thou thy will be done on 
earth, as it is done in heaven, give thou unto 
us this day our daily bread, and forgive thou 
unto us our trespasses, as we forgive them 
who trespass against us, and lead thou us not 
into temptation, bait deliver thou us from 
evil, for the kingdom is thine, and the power 
is thine, and the glory is thine, forever and 
ever. Amen. 



169 



The following examples are intended as exercises in trans- 
position for the Student. 

EXERCISE I. 

"Show pity Lord, oh! Lord forgive, 

Let a repenting rebel live: 

Are not thy mercies large and free, 

May not a sinner trust in thee] 

My crimes are great, but don't surpass 

The power and glory of thy grace. 

Great God! thy nature knows no bounds, 

So let thy pardoning love be found; 

Should sudden vengeance seize my breath, 

I must pronounce thee just in death, 

And if my soul were, sent to hell, 

Thy righteous law approves it well. 

Yet save a trembling sinner. Lord, 

Whose hope's still hovering 'round thy word, 

Would light on some sweet promise there, 

Some sure support against despair." 

EXERCISE II. 
Battle of Waterloo. 
1. There was a sound of revelry by night, 
And Belgium's capital had gather' d then 
Her beauty and her chivalry, and bright 
The lamps shone o'er fair woman and brave men: 
A thousand hearts beat happily; and when 
Music arose with its voluptuous swell, 
Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again, 
And all went merry as a marriage bell; 
But hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell! 



170 

2. Did ye not hear it? No, 'twas but the wind, 
Or the car rattling o'er the stony street: 
On with the dance! let joy be unconfined; 
No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet 
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet, etc. 

Byron. 
EXERCISE III. 

Now when fair morn orient in heaven appeared, 

Up rose the victor angels, and to arms 

The matin trumpet sung; in arms they stood 

Of golden panoply, refulgent host, 

Soon banded; others from the dawning hills 

Look'd 'round, and scouts each coast light armed scour, 

Each quarter, to descry the distant foe, 

Where lodged, or whither fled, or if for fight, 

In motion or in halt: him soon they met 

Under spread ensigns moving nigh, in slow 

But firm battalion; back with speediest sail 

Zophiel, of cherubim the swiftest wing, 

Came fly'ng and in mid air aloud thus cry'd, etc. 

Milton, 
EXERCISE IV. 

1 . There was a man, 

A Roman soldier, for some daring deed 
That trespassed on the laws, in dungeon low 
Chained down. His was a noble spirit, rough, 
But generous, and brave, and kind* 
He had a son, it was a rosy boy, 
A little faithful copy of his sire 
in face and gesture. From infancy the child 
Had been his father's solace and his care. 

2. Every sport 

The father shared and height'ned. But at length 
The rigorous law had grasped him, and condemned 
To fetters and to darkness,. 



171 

The captive's lot 
He felt in all its bitterness: — the walls 
Of his deep dungeon answered many a sigh 
And heart heav'd groan. This tale was known, and 

touched 
His jailer with compassion; — and the boy, 
Henceforth a frequent visitor, beguiled 
His father's lingering hours, and brought a balm 
With his loved presence that in every wound 
Dropt healing. But in this terrific hour 
He was a poisoned arrow in the breast 
Where he had been a cure. — Atherstone, 

EXERCISE V. 
Eve lamenting the loss of Paradise, 
O, unexpected stroke, worse than of death! 
Must I thus leave thee, Paradise] thus leave 
Thee, native soil, these happy walks and shades. 
Fit haunt of gods] where I had hope to spend. 
Quiet though sad, the respite of that day 
That must be mortal to us both. O flowers, 
That never will in other climate grow, 
My early visitation, and my last 
At.ev'n, which I bred up with tender hand, 
From the first opening bud, and gave ye names, 
Who now shall rear you to the sun, or rank 
Your tribes, and water from the ambrosial fount] 
Thee lastly, nuptial bow'r by me adorn'd 
With what to sight or smell was sweet, from thee 
How shall I part, and whither wander down 
Into a lower world, to this obscure 
And wild] how shall we breathe in other air 
Less pure, accustom'd to immortal fruits] 

Milton, 



172 



EXERCISE VI. 
Soliloquy of Hamlefs Uncle. 
Oh! my offence is rank, it smells to heaven; 
It hath the primal, eldest curse upon 't, 
A brother's murder! Pray I cannot, 
Though inclination be as sharp as 'twill, 
My strong guilt defeats my strong intent: 
And like a man to double business bound, 
I stand in pause where I shall first begin, 
And both neglect. What if this cursed hand 
Were thicker than itself with brother's blood; 
Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens 
To wash it white as snow? Whereto serves mercy. 
But to confront the visage of offence? 
And what's in prayer, but this two-fold force, 
To be forstalled, ere we come to fall, 
Or pardon'd being down] Then I'll look up; 
My fault is past. But oh, what form of prayer 
Can serve my turn? Forgive me my foul murderer! 
That cannot be; since I am still possess'd 
Of those effects for which I did the murder, 
My crown, my own ambition, and my queen. 
May one be pardon'd, and retain the offence] 
In the corrupted currents of this world, 
Offence's guilded hand may shove by justice; 
And oft 'tis seen, the wicked prize itself 
Buys out the laws; but 'tis not so above; 
There is no shuffling: there, the action lies 
In its true nature; and we ourselves compell'd, 
Even to the teeth and forehead of our faults, 
To give in evidence. What then? — what rests] 
Try what repentance can: what can it not] 
Yet what can it, when one cannot repent] 



173 

O wretched state! oh bosom, black as death! 

Oh limed sou 1 , that struggling to be free, 

Art more engaged! Help angels! make essay! 

Bow stubborn knees; and heart, with strings of steel, 

Be soft as sinews of the new born babe! 

All may be welL — Shakspeare* 

EXERCISE VIL 

Ah me, they little know 

How dearly I abide that boast so vain! 

Under what torments inwardly I groan, 

While they adore me on the throne of hell ! 

With diadem and sceptre high advanced, 

The lower still I fall, only supreme 

In misery. Such joy ambition finds. 

But say I could repent, and could obtain, 

By act of grace, my former state; how soon 

Would height recall high thoughts, how soon unsay 

What feign'd submission swore? ease would recant 

Vows made in pain, as violent and void. 

This knows my punisher: therefore, as far 

From granting he, as I from begging peace; 

All hope excluded thus, behold instead 

Of us outcast, exil'd his new delight, 

Mankind created, and for him this world. 

So farewell hope, and with hope farewell fear, 

Farewell remorse: All good to me is lost. — Milton* 

EXERCISE VIIL 
Ambition! powerful source of good and ill! 
Thy strength in man, like length of wing in birds, 
When disengag'd from earth, with greater ease 
And swifter flight transports us to the skies, 
By toys entangled, or in guilt bemir'd, 
It turns a curse; it is our chain, and scourge, 
16 



174 

In this dark dungeon, where confined we Iie> 
Close grated by the sordid bars of sense; 
All prospect of eternity shut out; 
And, but for execution, ne'er set free. — Young* 



NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. 
1 . Nouns signifying home, distance, time, &c, 
should be governed by prepositions express- 
ed or understood: as the men have walked 
five miles, ie the distance of five miles, or 
over five miles: I am convinced there is no 
place like home; ie like unto home: I have 
followed the sea twenty years: ie for twenty 
years* 

2. Suitable prepositions should be used to 
express the different relations words have to 
each other. It would, therefore, be incor- 
rect to say, "I know that of me, that is of my 
flesh proceedeth no good thing; but we 
should say; I know that/rom me, that is from 
my flesh proceedeth no good thing:" again, 
the expression* "I shall be there by two 
o'clock," is frequently used, although the 
preposition expresses the relation; yet it 
does not appear suitable; for how can we be 
there by the side of time? we should there- 
fore say, I shall be there at two o'clock. 

3, Inconsistent qualities should never be 



175 

joined for the sake of brevity; it would there- 
fore be incorrect to say, "The Old and New 
Testaments:" here, we join inconsistent qual- 
ities; we should therefore supply the article 
and say, the Old and the New Testaments. 

4. It is the practise of correct speakers 
and writers, to use the indefinite article #, 
after the words many and such: as, many a 
one, such a one; not many an one, such an 
one. 

5. The indefinite article a is used before 
a word beginning within when sounded long; 
but an, when sounded short: as, a union, an 
umpire. 

6. Adjectives should be placed before the 
nouns of which they express the quality, — 
it would therefore be incorrect to say, a new- 
pair of shoes; because, we wish to express 
the quality of the shoes and not the pair; we 
should say therefore, a pair of new shoes. 

7. When adjectives are used in distin- 
guishing qualities, they should be placed 
next to the noun whose quality is to be dis- 
tinguished; it would therefore be incorrect 
to say, "omit the two last verses," etc.; for 
you perceive there cannot be two last; but 
we should say — omit the last two, etc. 

&. The pronoun what should never be 
used instead of the conjunction that; it would 



176 

therefore be incorrect to say — t Know him 
well and cannot believe but what he was 
right — it should be 5 but that he was right. 

9. You have been taught that conjunc- 
tions connect the same cases of nouns and 
pronouns; it would therefore be incorrect to 
say— this is a subject between you and I; for 
you perceive that the pronoun you is in the 
objective case, governed by the preposition 
between, and as it is connected by the copu- 
lative conjunction and, the pronoun /, being 
in the nominative case, is incorrect; we 
should therefore say between you and me. 

10. When doubt and future time are ex- 
pressed, the subjunctive mood must be used; 
but when doubt only is expressed, we may 
use either the indicative or potential mood as 
the case may be, notwithstanding the verb is 
preceded by the subjunctive sign. 

11. The conjunctions neither and nor, and 
either and or, should be used in pairs; it 
would therefore be incorrect to say, neither 
John or his brother went to Philadelphia; 
but we should say, neither John nor his bro- 
ther went to Philadelphia. 

12. The negative adverb no should never 
be used in the place of not; it would there- 
fore be incorrect to say — I do not care 



177 

whether I go or no. To show the impro- 
priety of this expression, we will supply 
what is meant and it will read, I do not care 
whether I go or no go; we should therefore 
say, whether I go or not. 

13. When a participle is joined to an ad- 
verb, it must he parsed independently of the 
rest of the sentence: as, justly concluding 
it was a matter of no importance: here con- 
cluding is a present participle, and all you 
have to say about it is — it is a present parti- 
ple, and is derived from the verb to conclude. 

14. When present or active participles are 
joined to the neuter verb to be, or its inflec- 
tions, they must be parsed separately and 
govern the objective case: as, she was writ- 
ing a letter when I left town. In this sen- 
tence writing is a present participle, letter, 
is a noun in the objective case governed by 
the active participle writing; you perceive 
clearly that the noun letter is the object of 
the active participle writing, which has the 
same government as the verb to write. 

15. When an adjective immediately fol- 
lows a preposition, and a noun is understood, 
they are taken together and called an ad- 
verbial phrase: as? in vain, in general, in 
particular, etc. 

16. It is the practise of correct speakers 
16* 



178 

and writers, when a word is used to supply 
the place of another to call it that, for which 
it is supplied, as in the following example: 
all but John were in the secret — you per- 
ceive but is a disjunctive conjunction, yet it 
supplies the place of the preposition except, 
it is therefore called a preposition. 

17. It is usual when two or more nouns 
are used in the possessive case, to place the 
apostrophe with the last noun: as Susan, 
Eliza, and Mary's books. 

18. When two or more nouns are used, 
connected by a copulative conjunction, hav- 
ing annexed the pronouns each, every, either, 
they must have a singular verb, notwith- 
standing they are connected by a copulative 
conjunction, as in the following example: 
every man, every woman, and every child 
was numbered. 

19. Adverbs often perform the office of 
conjunctions: as again, also, since, when, &c. 
Examples. It is five months since I wrote: 
again, I say unto you, etc. When they there- 
fore were come together, etc. 

20. When a pronoun is used interroga- 
tively, the word or phrase to which it relates 
is not antecedent, but subsequent, and the 
answer to the question must be in the same 
case: as who wrote that letter? William. 2. 



179 

Who was in the coach? Mar}'. 3. By whom 
do you intend to convey the merchandize? 
Them. 4. To whom is he engaged? Her. 

21. Double comparatives and superlatives 
should not be used; it is therefore incorrect 
to saj r , "A more easier plan could be adopt- 
ed;" because easier, is an adjective, natural- 
ly in the comparative degree, and does not 
require the adverb to qualify it: again, when 
we say, "The most Supreme Being: it is in- 
correct; because supreme, is an adjective of 
the superlative degree and cannot be raised. 

22. It is usual when two things are com- 
pared to use the comparative degree; it is 
therefore incorrect to say, "She is the tallest 
of the two." 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

On JYote 1. What part of speech governs 
the nouns, home, distance, time, fyc. and give 
an example to each? 

2. How are different relations expressed, 
and give an example? 

3. Should inconsistent qualities be joined 
and why not; give an example? 

4. What articles are used after the words 
many and such; give an example? 

5. What article is used before a word be- 
ginning with a u, when sounded long, and 



180 

what when sounded short; give the exam- 
ples? 

6. How are adjectives placed with the 
noun of which they express the quality? 
What is the common mode of expression, 
and correct it by an example? 

7, When a noun is to be distinguished by 
an adjective, how is the adjective placed; 
give an example? 

& Should the relative what be used in- 
stead of the conjunction that, give an exam- 
ple falsely constructed, and correct it? 

9. Is it correct language to say between 
you and I; why not? and correct it accord- 
ing to rule? 

10. What mood is used when doubt and 
future time are expressed ? and what moods 
may be used when neither doubt nor future 
time is expressed, although they may have 
the subjunctive sign? 

1 1. Name the conjunctions which are used 
in pairs; give the examples? 

12. Should the negative adverb no be 
used in place of not, give? give an example 
falsely constructed and correct it? 

13. When present or active participles 
are joined to adverbs, how are they parsed; 
give an example? 

14. When a present or active participle is 



181 

joined to the neuter verb to he, or any of 
its inflections, how is it parsed; give an ex- 
ample? 

15. What are the following phrases styled, 
in vain, in general, in particular? 

16. When a word is used to supply the 
place of another, what is it called; give an 
example? 

17. When two or more nouns are used in 
the possessive case, with what noun is the 
apostrophe used; give an example? 

18. When distributive pronouns are an- 
nexed to nouns connected by a copulative 
conjunction, with what verb must they agree; 
give an example? 

19. Name the adverbs which perform the 
office of conjunctions? 

20. When a pronoun is used interrogative- 
ly, in what case must the answer be; give 
the example? 

21. Should double comparatives and su- 
perlatives be used; why not? give examples 
falsely constructed, and correct them? 

22. When two things are compared, what 
degree of comparison is used; give an ex- 
ample falsely constructed and correct it? 



182 



VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry, says a celebrated author, is the 
language of highly wrought passion, or of a 
lively imagination. Versification consists in 
a particular arrangement of a number and 
variety of accented and unaccented sylla- 
bles, corresponding to particular rules or 
laws. Rhyme is a correspondent sound in 
the last syllable at the end of one line, to the 
sound of the last syllable of another. Blank 
verse is poetical thought, in regular numbers 
of accented and unaccented syllables, with- 
out the correspondent sound at the end of 
the line which constitutes rhyme. Poetical 
feet consist in the arrangement and connexion 
of a number of accented and unaccented syl- 
lables. All poetical feet consist of two and 
three syllables, and are reducible to eight 
kinds, viz: — Four of two syllables and four 
of three, as follows : a Trochee, an Iambus, 
a Spondee, a Pyric, a Trisylable, a Dactyle, 
an Amphibrach, an Anapaest, a Tribrach. 

A Trochee is accented on the first and un- 
accented on the last syllable; as baneful, 
happy. 

A Spondee is unaccented on the first and 
accented on the last syllable: as denoun ce, 
disdain, 



183 

A Dactyle is accented on the first and un- 
accented on the two last syllables; as empha- 
sis, probable. 

An Anapaest is unaccented on the first 
two, and accented on the last syllable; as 
contradict, acquiesce. 

An Iambus; as, "the bright light/ 5 
A Pyrrhick; as, "on the high hill." 
An Amphibrach; as, derangement. 
A Tribrach; as, num eric'al. 

QUESTIONS ON VERSIFICATION. 

1. What is poetry? 

2. What is versification in English? 

3. What constitutes rhyme? 

4. What is blank verse? 

5. Of what does poetical feet consist? 

6. Why are they called feet? 

7. Poetical feet is divided into what syl- 

lables? 

8. How many are there of two syllables? 

9. How many are there of three syllables? 

10. Give the names of poetical feet? 

11. Give the meaning of a Trochee? 

12. Name the examples? 

13. Give the meaning of a Spondee? 

14. Name the examples? 

15. What is an example of a Pyrrhick? 

16. Give the meaning of a Dactyle? 



184 

17. Name the example? 

18. What is an example of an Amphibrack? 

19. Give the meaning of an Anapaest? 

20. Name the examples? 

21. What is an example of a Tribrack? 

22. What is an example of an Iambus? 

Directions respecting the use of Capital Let- 
ters. It is proper to begin with a capital: 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, 
letter, note, or any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period, and, if 
the two sentences are totally independent, 
after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity; as God, 
Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, 
the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy 
Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, 
mountains, rivers, ships; as, John, Boston, 
Andes, Patapsco, the Constitution. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper 
names of places; as Grecian, Roman, Eng- 
lish, French, &c. 

6. The first word of a quotation, intro- 
duced after a colon, or when it is in a direct 
form; as, "Always remember this ancient 
maxim: Know thyself." 

The first word of an example may also 
very properly begin with a capital* 



185 

7. Every substantive and principal word 
in the titles of books; as Johnson's Diction- 
ary of the English Language, Thomson's 
Seasons. 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun I and the interjection O, 
are written in capitals. Other words besides 
the preceding, may begin with capitals, 
when they are remarkably emphatical, or 
the principal subject of the composition. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF IMPROPER 
WORDS. 
Many words of harsh and unmeaning 
sound, are still used, although there are oth- 
ers which give more pleasure to the ear; as 
the following, towards for toward; upivards for 
upward; downwards for downward; amongst 
for among; whilst for while; besides for be- 
side; jist for just; sich for such; in for ing; 
as he is a cunnin man; virtew for virtue; na- 
tur for nature; pison for poison; dannjur for 
danger; strannjur for stranger; anngel for an- 
gel; afeared for afraid; onmindful for un- 
mindful; heft for weight; prowided for pro- 
vided; dooz for does; hull for whole; yander 
for yonder; no ways for no wise; scrouge for 
for crowd; be for am; as be you going? yes I 
17 



186 

be; aginst for against; to hum for at home:} 
gwine for going; as where are you gwine? 
nary ways for no wise; nicely for very well; 
as how is your sister? nicely, thank ye; guess 
and reckon for think and imagine; as I guess 
it will rain, &c; thar for there; tote for car- 
ry; I disrememher for misremember; ary one 
and nary one are corruptions for either and 
neither; knowd for knew; as I know'd him; 
seed for seen; as I seed him do it; akst for 
asked. The word how is improperly intro- 
duced, as I knew how I should be there, &c. 
In this sentence the word hoiv is a vulgar 
error. We should in general avoid the use 
of contractions, as dont for do not; shoiddent 
for should not; wouldent for would not; could* 
ent for could not; cant for can not; mussent 
for must not; mightent for might not; havent 
for have not; shant for shall not; diddent for 
did not; hadent for had not; mayent for may 
not; oughtent for ought not; wasent for was 
not; aint for am not; doesent for does not; 
hasent for has not; tisent for His not. The 
word wilt is often improperly used for with- 
er, as the trees wilt in autumn: the word 
above is used improperly for preceding; as 
"the above discourse," instead of the preced- 
ing discourse; lengthy is improperly used for 
long, as that was a lengthy sermon. 



187 



PUNCTUATION. 

Allow me to observe that no specific rules 
can be given for definite or invariable pro- 
portions in composition : some punctuate 
more closely than others, but as we should 
never make any communication in writing 
unless it be punctuated, I have selected the 
following rules from the most approved au- 
thors; nevertheless, you should carefully ex- 
amine the Bible, and other books of approv- 
ed merit, which after all will be your best 
guide. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing compo- 
sition, or writing, by stops and points into 
simple or compound sentences, in order to 
understand the sense or meaning of an au- 
thor, and to note more accurately the inflec- 
tions of voice required in reading. The fol- 
lowing are the stops and points in punctua- 
tion : a comma , a semicolon ; a colon : a period . 
a note of interrogation ? a note of exclama- 
tion ! a parenthesis ( ) a dash — A comma de- 
notes the shortest pause; a semicolon, a pause 
double that of the comma; a colon, a pause 
double that of a semicolon, and a period or 
full stop, denotes a pause double that of a 
colon. 

Simple sentences are those which are so 



188 

closely connected in sense, as not to admit a 
pause: as fallible men are liable to error. But 
in the following sentence a comma is requir- 
ed: In the morning of life, youth is more 
buoyant. A semicolon is a pause in a sen- 
tence, which is not so closely connected in 
sense, as those which are distinguished by a 
comma, nor so far removed as those which 
are distinguished by a colon, as in the fol- 
lowing example: Religion is the source of 
all our happiness; "there joy flows in unin- 
terrupted streams, and needs no mound to 
check its course." A colon is a pause in a 
sentence, which is not so closely connected 
in sense as those which are distinguished by 
a semicolon; nor so far removed as those 
sentences which require a period, or full 
stop, as in the following examples: He was 
often heard to say; "I have done with the 
world, and am willing to leave it." Again: 
"See that moth fluttering around the candle: 
Man of pleasure behold thy image." A 
period or full stop denotes a complete sen- 
tence, whether simple or compound; as in 
the following examples: "The wages of sin 
is death." "Vice is the sure road to ruin." 
Compound sentences. "Man that is born of 
a woman, is of few days, and full of trouble." 
"He cometh forth like a flower, and is cut 
down; he fleeth also as a shadow, and con- 



189 

tinueth not." The following words and signs, 
generally require a period after them, A. D. 
ie. viz. tilt. 

A note of interrogation is used interro- 
gatively, or in asking questions: "Art thou 
the Christ? In life, can love be bought with 
gold? Are friendships pleasures to be sold? 
A note of exclamation is used, when some 
sudden passion or emotion of the mind is ex- 
pressed:" "Oh! Death where is thy sting? 
Oh! Grave where is thy victory?" "Oh! that 
I had wings like a dove, then would I fly away 
and be at rest." 

A parenthesis is a clause thrown in be- 
tween the parts of a sentence, (without in- 
jury to the grammatical construction,) and 
may be read with the sentence, or without 
it, and not destroy the sense: as, "Know ye 
not brethren, (for I speak to them that know 
the law) how that the law hath dominion 
over a man as long as he liveth?" "Do unto 
others, (a golden rule) what to thyself, thou 
wishest to be done. 

The dash, may be used with propriety, 
where the sentence breaks off abruptly; or 
where a significant pause is required: It 
should however be seldom used: as, if you 
can reconcile it to your conscience, — if it 
corresponds with your profession of chris- 
17* 



190 

tianity, — and, if it is consistent with the 
claims of religion, — then I confess, I am de- 
ceived in its requirements. "Here lies the 
great — False marble, where? Nothing but 
sordid dust lies here." 

A quotation is marked thus " " 

A asterisk is used to point out some cir- 
cumstance or reference, and the circumstance 
or reference, is generally placed in the mar- 
gin, or at the bottom of the page; it is mark- 
ed thus * 

QUESTIONS ON PUNCTUATION. 

1. Are there any definite or invariable 
proportions in punctuation? 

2. Are there any specific rules for punc- 
tuation? 

3. What is punctuation? 

4. Name the stops and points in punctua- 
tion? 

5. What pause does a comma denote? 

6. What pause does a semicolon denote? 

7. What pause does a colon denote? 

8. What is a period, and what pause does 
it denote? 

9. Do simple sentences in general require 
a pause? 

10. Give an example? 

11. Give an example of a sentence, which 
requires a comma? 



191 

12. How is a semicolon to be distinguished? 

13. Give an example which requires a 
semicolon? 

14. How is a colon to be distinguished? 

15. Give an example of a sentence which 
requires a colon? 

16. Do periods denote simple and com- 
pound sentences? 

17. Give an example of a simple sentence, 
which requires a period? 

18. Give an example of a compound sen- 
tence, which requires a period? 

19. What words are immediately followed 
by periods? 

20. What is the use of a note of interro- 
gation? 

21. Give an example? 

22. What is the use of a note of exclama- 
tion? 

23. Give an example? 

24. What is the use of a parenthesis? 

25. Give an example? 

26. What is the use of a dash? 

27. Give an example? 

28. How is a quotation marked? 

29. What is the use of an asterisk, and 
how is it placed? 

30- How is an asterisk marked? 



192 



THE FOLLOWING IS A BRIEF LECTURE ON 
RHETORICK. 

Rhetorick is a science, which teaches us 
to affect the passions by suitable illustrations 
and imagery, and to arrange our thoughts 
and ideas, bringing into requisition every 
variety, which is presented by nature and 
art, so as to make the deepest impression on 
the feelings and judgments of those whom 
we may address. The following are the dif- 
ferent figures of speech, viz: Simile or Com- 
parison, Metaphor, Allegory, Irony, Climax, 
Hyperbole, Antithesis, Personification, Apos- 
trophe, Interrogation, and Exclamation. 

Simile or Comparison is a figure used by 
comparing one thing with another, for the 
sake of illustration; us, when we say — The 
man who bears with fortitude and perfect 
resignation the disappointments of human 
life, is like the mountain oak, which stands 
unmoved, amid the peltings of the storm: or, 
the actions of Princes, are like those of deep 
rivers, the course of which every one be- 
holds, but their springs have been seen by 
few. 

Metaphor is a figure nearly allied to com- 
parison, and indeed, is a comparison in an 
abridged form; thus, when we speak of a 



193 

patriot, we say, He is the Saviour of his 
country: or, when we speak of Minister, we 
say, He is the Pillar of the state. There is 
a number of beautiful illustrations of Meta- 
phor in the Sacred Writings; The following 
is an example: "I will be unto her a wall of 
fire round about, and the glory in the midst 
of her." This is speaking metaphorically. 

Allegory is a continuation of several 
metaphors or comparisons, so as to connect 
or form a kind of parable or fable. In the 
eightieth Psalm we have an example of a 
beautiful allegory, which represents the Is- 
raelites under the image of a vine; the con- 
clusion of which is, "The hills were cover- 
ed with the shadow of it, and the boughs 
were like the goodly cedars: She sent out 
her boughs unto the sea, and her branches 
unto the river: Why hast thou then broken 
down her hedges, so that all they which pass 
by the ways do pluck her? The boar out of 
the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of 
the field doth devour it: Return we beseech 
thee O God of hosts; look down from hea- 
ven, and behold and visit this vine." 

Iro^y is a figure used when we urge a 
thing meaning the contrary, so as to give 
the greater effect to our meaning. The fol- 
lowing is an example of Irony in a question 



194 

of debate, where the opposite party claimed 
the victory, before the argument was pur- 
sued: "The gentlemen have surrounded, ta- 
ken captive, proclaimed a defeat, and pro- 
nounced our valedictory, before allowing an 
opportunity of defence; this is folly in the 
extreme: the subjects of Irony, are vices 
and follies of all kinds. 

Climax is used, whenever we rise from 
one circumstance to another, until we ascend 
to the highest. The following is an example 
of climax, in a charge of a judge to a jury, 
in the case of a mother, who was the murderer 
of her child: "Gentlemen, if one man had 
some how slain another, or if an adversary had 
slain his opponent, even these crimes would 
have been capitally punished; but if this in- 
nocent child had been slain by its nurse, 
with what cries of anguish, would the mother 
have saluted your ears: What shall we say 
then, when the mother is the murderer of 
her own child, a crime in its nature pro- 
digious, whose age claimed protection, and 
whose near relationship called for the highest 
favors which human nature could bestow." 

Hyperbole is used to express the highest 
idea of an object, and to, magnify it above 
its natural or common dimensions; as, I saw 
the tall and stately ship, as an island moving 



195 

bn the waters, her sails a cloud, her prow 
separating the foaming ocean. 

Antithesis is a figure used as a contrast 
or opposition of two things in a sentence; 
as, If General Arnold was to be severely cen- 
sured, for abandoning the cause of liberty, 
and turning traitor, what shall we say to 
those who embrace this cause faintly, pursue 
it irresolutely, give it up when they have 
every thing to hope for, and nothing to fear. 

Personification is used when we give 
life and passion to inanimate things; as when 
we say, The ground thirsts for rain. The 
vine groans under its burthen. 

Apostrophe is used when we address in- 
animate things; as, Oh! Death, where is thy 
sting? Oh! Grave, where is thy victory? 

Interrogation is used in asking ques- 
tions, and to give ardor and energy to our 
discourse or argument; as, Where is the man 
that will place himself in my condition? Is 
not a situation like that much to be dreaded? 
How long will you amuse with your sophis- 
tical arguments? Knowest thou not that it is 
an abuse of our patience? 

Exclamation is used to express passion 
or emotion of the mind, and is generally 
followed by a note of admiration; as, Alas! 
I fear I have alienated my friend forever. 



196 

Oh! that I had a lodging place in the wil- 
derness. Oh! that my head were waters, 
and mine eyes a fountain of tears, etc. 

Rhetorical disposition or arrangement is 
placing the parts of an argument, discourse, 
oration, or composition, in the most suitable 
order for illustration: There are several 
orders as follows, viz. The Exordium, Nar- 
ration, Proposition, Confirmation, Refuta- 
tion, and Peroration. 

The Exordium, or the beginning of a dis- 
course, is a formal preface, relating to the 
subject to be discussed. 

The Narration exhibits all the facts, con- 
tained in the argument or discourse, as the 
case may be. 

The Proposition sets forth the principal 
points or parts of a discourse, upon which 
the writer or speaker intends to enlarge. 

The Confirmation assembles all the facts 
connected with the discourse or argument, 
upon which the writer or speaker must sub- 
stantiate his claim. 

The Refutation answers all the objections 
held forth by an opponent, for the purpose 
of refuting them. 

The Peroration sums up the whole argu- 
ment or discourse, and endeavors to excite 
the feelings and judgment of an audience, or 
an assembly in his favour. 



197 



QUESTIONS ON THE LECTURE ON RHETORICK. 

1. What does the science of Rhetorick 
teach? 

2. Name the different figures of speech? 

3. Give the meaning or use of simile or 
comparison? 

4. Name the examples? 

5. Give the meaning or use of Metaphor? 

6. Name the example? 

7. Give the meaning or use of Allegory? 

8. Name the example? 

9. Give the meaning or use of Irony? 

10. Name the example? 

11. Give the meaning or use of Climax. 

12. Name the example? 

13. Give the meaning or use of Hyperbole? 

14. Name the example? 

15. Give the meaning or use of Antithesis? 

16. Name the examples? 

17. Give the meaning or use of Personifi- 
cation? 

18. Name the examples? 

1 9. Give the meaning or use of Apostrophe? 

20. Name the example? 

21. Give the meaning or use of interroga- 
tion? 

22. Name the example? 

18 



198 

23. Give the meaning or use of Excla- 
mation? 

24. Name the examples? 

25. What is rhetorical disposition or ar- 
rangement? 

26. Name the different parts of a dis- 
course, oration, &c? 

27. What is the use of Exordium? 

28. What is the use of Narration? 

29. What is the use of Proposition? 

30. What is the use of Confirmation? 

31. What is the use of Refutation? 

32. What is the use of Peroration? 



OBSERVATIONS ON LETTER WRITING. 

In every communication or letter that is 
written, the greatest care should be observ- 
ed in the orthography; this is so essentially 
necessary that although the style may be 
good, the sentences constructed in strict ac- 
cordance with grammatical usage, and the 
selection of words appropriate, yet if the 
orthography be erroneous, we are liable, 
and indeed are exposed to ridicule and 
contempt; the reason is obvious, because it 
is a manifest declaration of ignorance, in the 
first or elementary principles of education. 



199 

It would be better to have our composition 
obscure, than commit an error in orthogra- 
phy. Punctuation is a prominent feature of 
written communications; we should never 
write and put out of our hands the smallest 
note, unless it be punctuated correctly. It 
will be well to consult the rules I have given 
for punctuation, because, if a letter or note 
be falsely punctuated, it is liable to miscon- 
struction, as the following examples will 
show. 

"Tyron, who escaped from the goal on 
Friday last, is twenty-two years of age, has 
sandy hair light, eyes thin, visage, with a 
short nose turned up about six feet high, &c." 
What do you think, I write for a Journal, 
and receive no compensation. I saw a horse 
fly through a window, (corrected) "Thin 
visage, with a short nose turned up, about 
six feet high," &c. "What! do you think 
I write for a Journal, and receive no com- 
pensation?" 

"I saw a horse-fly through a window." 
The preceding examples may serve to 
show the necessity of attending carefully to 
the rules of punctuation. A knowledge of 
Syntax is required to be able to punctuate 
correctly. We should avoid as much as pos- 
sible tautology, redundancy, and all irrele- 



200 

vant matter; for it is absurd to see three 
sides of a sheet written over when one might 
contain all that it is necessary to communi- 
cate. Letters on business, therefore, should 
be plain, concise, and to the point; and never 
express a word or sentiment in a letter, that 
you would not be willing to have exposed 
to the world; for when a letter is out of your 
possession, it becomes the property of anoth- 
er, and it is liable to misconstruction and ex- 
posure; many instances of great difficulty 
have occurred, by imprudently writing the 
sayings and doings of another, for it will be 
recollected that verbal communications may 
be forgotten, or at most they are not always 
proof; but when your signature is affixed to 
an instrument of writing, it is a standing 
proof that cannot be contradicted. 



201 



SELECTIONS FOR THE EXERCISE OF THE STU- 
DENT IN LEARNING. 
Providential Distinctions. — P ollo c k . 
One man there was— and many such you might 
Have met — who never had a dozen thoughts 
In all his life, and never changed their course; 
But told them o'er each in its customed place, 
From morn till night, from youth till hoary age, 
Little above the ox which grazed the field 
His reason rose: so weak his memory, 
The name his mother called him by, he scarce 
Remembered; and his judgment so untaught, 
That what at evening played along the swamp, 
Fantastic, clad in robe of fiery hue, 
He thought the devil in disguise, and fled 
With quivering heart, and winged footsteps home, 
The word philosophy he never heard, 
Or science; never heard of liberty. 
Necessity; or laws of gravitation: 
And never had an unbelieving doubt. 
Beyond his native vale he never looked; 
But thought the visual line, that girt him round, 
The world's extreme: and thought the silver moon 9 
That nightly o'er him led her virgin host, 
No broader than his father's shield. He lived — 
Lived where his father lived— died where he died; 
Lived happy, and died happy, and was saved. 
Be not surprised. He loved and served his God, 
There was another, large of understanding, 
Of memory infinite, of judgment deep: 
Who knew all learning, and all science knew; 
And all phenomena in heaven and earth, 
18* 



202 

Traced to their causes; traced the labyrinths 

Of thought, association, passion, will; 

And all the subtile, nice affinities 

Of matter, traced; its virtues, motions, laws; 

And most familiarly and deeply talked 

Of mental, moral, natural, divine. 

Leaving the earth at will, he soared to heaven, 

And read the glorious visions of the skies; 

And to the music of the rolling spheres 

Intelligently listened; and gazed far back, 

Into the awful depths of Deity. 

Did all, that mind assisted most, could do; 

And yet in misery lived, in misery died, 

Because he wanted holiness of heart. 

A deeper lesson this to mortals taught, 

And nearer cut the branches of their pride 

That not in mental, but in moral worth, 

God, excellence placed; and only to the good, 

To virtue, granted happiness alone. 



GOD. 

Translated from a Russian Ode by Derzhaniz. 
O thou eternal one! whose presence bright, 
All space doth occupy. All motion guide; 
Unchanged through time's all devastating flight, 
Thou only God! There is no God beside, 
Being above all beings! Mighty One! 
Whom none can comprehend, and none explore, 
Who fill'st existence with thyself alone; 
Embracing all — supporting — ruling o'er — 
Being whom we call God — and know no more! 
A million torches lighted by thy hand, 
Wander unwearied through the blue abyss; 



203 

They own thy power, accomplish thy command, 

All gay with life, all eloquent with bliss: 

What shall we call them? Piles of crystal light? 

A glorious company of golden streams? 

Lamps of celestial ether, burning bright? 

Suns lighting systems with their joyous beams? 

But thou to these art as the noon to night. 

Yes! as a drop of water in the sea, 

All this magnificence is lost in thee: — 

What are ten thousand worlds compared to Thee? 

And what am I then? Heaven's unnumbered host, 

Though multiplied by myriads, and arrayed 

In all the glory of sublimest thought, 

Is but an atom in the balance weighed 

Against thy greatness — is a cypher brought, 

Against infinity! what am I then? Nought! 

Nought?— But the effulgence of thy light divine, 

Pervading worlds, hath reached my bosom too; 

Yes, in my spirit doth thy spirit shine, 

As shines the sun-beam in a drop of dew. 

Nought? — But I live, and on hope's pinions fly, 

Eager towards thy presence; for in thee 

I live> and breathe, and dwell; aspiring high, 

Even to the throne of thy Divinity. 

I am, God, and surely thou must be! 

Thou art! directing, guiding, all. Thou art! 
Direct my understanding then to thee; 
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart; 
Though but an atom 'midst immensity, 
Still I am something fashioned by thy hand! 
I hold a middle rank, 'twixt heaven and earth, 
On the last verge of being stand, 
Close to the realm where angels have their birth 
Just on the boundary of the spirit land! 



204 



Death of Ashman. — Mrs. Sigourney. 

1. Whose is yon sable bier? 
Why move the throng so slow? 
Why doth that lonely mother's tear 
In sudden anguish flow] 

Why is that sleeper laid 

To rest in manhood's pride? 

How gain'd his cheek such pallid shade? 

I spake, — but none replied, 

2. The hoarse wave murmur'd low, 
The distant surges roar'd; 

And o'er the sea in tones of wo 
A deep response was pour'd; 
I heard sad Africk mourn 
Upon her billowy strand; — 
A shield was from her bosom torn, 
An anchor from her hand. 

3. Ah! well I know thee now, 
Though foreign suns would trace 
Deep lines of death upon thy brow, 
Thou friend of misery's race; — 
Their leader when the blast 

Of ruthless war swept by, 

Their teacher when the storm was past, 

Their guide to worlds on high, 

4. Spirit of Power,— pass on!—*- 
Thy homeward wing is free;— 

Earth may not claim thee for her son, — 

She hath no chain for thee:— 

Toil might not bow thee down, — 

Nor sorrow cheek thy race, 

Nor pleasure win thy birthright crown,- — 

<Go to thy own blest place.. — 



205 



LECTURE ON PUBLIC SPEAKING AND ELO- 
QUENCE. 

It is obvious to the most superficial mind, 
that all the embellishments of art, can never 
make an orator of high distinction, unless 
nature has laid the foundation; and, on the 
other hand, it is as conceivable, that, with all 
the bounties nature lavishes, labour and ap- 
plication are necessary to exaltation. Like 
the diamond in the quarry, possessing all its 
intrinsic excellence, yet its beauty and worth 
can never be appreciated, unless art gives it 
a polish. We would observe, the first at- 
tainment necessary to the qualification of a 
public speaker, is a grammatical knowledge 
of his own language, its construction, gov- 
ernment, and power. Indeed, this is so 
obvious, that it does not require a prolonged 
discussion to substantiate its claims. Reflec- 
tion and experience prove the fact, that all 
men, however limited their capacity, con- 
ceive and arrange their thoughts and ideas, 
with much greater alacrity, than they can 
clothe them into words and sentences. It is 
plain then, that a knowledge of the powers 
of language, with its modifications, agree- 
ment and government, stands justly pre- 



206 

eminent. It is the living oracle of the mind, 
and the vehicle of communication, by which 
a knowledge of the past, present, and in 
some respects, the future, may be attained: 
The firm and solid compact, that unites com- 
munities, the strong bond, which cements 
social happiness, and the solace of declining 
age: The possession of which gives spring 
to thought, actively to mind, embellishment 
to ideas and grace to address. Language is 
the efficient tool of the speakers' trade; he 
must then ascertain its power and force, and 
in the combination of nature and art, he 
must exhibit, by chosen speech, the well cul- 
tivated regularity of a garden, or a magnifi- 
cent mountain scenery; its softness must be 
like the touches elicited from the harp by 
the sweeping breeze; its beauty must be like 
the clear, lucid bosom of a majestic lake, 
from which are seen a thousand variegated 
landscapes; its force, like the mountain oak, 
unmoved amid the howlings of the storm; 
or, by the more forcible demonstrations of 
Scripture imagery, as auxiliaries to impress 
the mind, mould the passions, and elevate 
the heart. Well chosen words and a perfect 
concord and agreement in their arrange- 
ment, are of the highest importance for the 
dignity and elevation of a public speaker. 



207 
Let it not be supposed, however, that the 
attainment of any isolated science, will form 
the model of public speaking. Rhetorical 
disposition and arrangement are so neces- 
sary, that to separate them, would sever the 
link of that chain, eminently calculated to 
give pre-eminence and elevation. It were 
presumptuous, however, to suppose, that the 
streams which flow from the graces and 
beauties of rhetorick, abstractedly consider- 
ed, will finish or complete the character of 
a public speaker. No,— like the high and 
holy strains which emanate from Scripture, 
they delight and please the ear, yet the 
requisition of inspiration, is necessary, to 
rouse our slumbering thoughts, engage the 
affections, and win the heart. A good taste, 
therefore, should be cultivated; this principle 
is possessed in a rude state, by all mankind; 
its exhibitions are manifested at a very early 
age by children, but a good taste can only 
be acquired by patient application, in the 
consultation of both ancient and modern 
authors, of distinguished reputation. No 
sentiment should ever be permitted to escape 
the lips of a public speaker, which would 
indicate a low and grovelling taste; even 
superficial minds would soon grow weary of 
its buffoonery, and the refined intellect be- 
come disgusted. 



208 

Style forms a prominent and fascinating 
part of the powers of eloquence. It may 
be divided into four sorts: viz. Plain, Neat, 
Florid, and Sublime. Intense application is 
necessary, to cultivate a good style, without 
which in our public declamations, like the 
coat of the youthful patriarch, we might run 
into all the varieties of metre, and of course 
be unintelligible, in the application of a sub- 
ject, and fail to interest the passions, or com- 
mand the feelings of an assembly. Do not 
suppose that a superficial attention is all that 
is necessary to form a good style; those who 
have attained to high distinction in reference 
to this point, have devoted years of applica- 
tion to its study: If, therefore, you would be 
proficients, your course of reading must be 
authors of the most distinguished merit. 

Extempore speaking will greatly facilitate 
you, but above all, write or compose. We 
may learn from hence, that reading and ex- 
temporaneous declamation, are necessary 
auxiliaries, but writing or composing, (like 
the last mighty act in the scheme of human 
redemption,) gives the final polish of style 
to a public speaker. Among all the sciences, 
however, that should engage the attention 
of the mind of man, of a public speaker, 
and especially for triumphant argumentation, 



209 

is that science, the foundation of which is 
laid in the philosophy of the human mind: 
Its commencement being from the first and 
most simple perception of outward or mate- 
rial objects, and from deduction to deduc- 
tion, to those remoter truths, which result 
from the operation of reasoning. The rules 
of this science being admirably calculated 
to facilitate the reasoning powers; it is evi- 
dent that a knowledge of those rules is of 
importance. Nevertheless, we must not sup- 
' pose, however important this knowledge, 
that it supercedes the necessity of practice. 
The powers of the mind, like those of the 
body, acquire strength by use; the art of rea- 
soning can only be acquired by a long and 
careful practice to the mode of reasoning on 
different subjects, and in different ways. 
The rules of logic, however, afford assist- 
ance to the reasoning powers, equally im- 
portant as that which animal strength de- 
rives from the aid of mechanical powers and 
engines, and by close attention in the appli- 
cation of those rules, however subtle and in- 
tricate an argument, they will analyze its 
structure, and show how truth may be dis- 
covered, or fallacy detected. This subject 
opens to the mind's contemplation an exten- 
sive field for the examination of its powers, 
19 



210 

operations and modes of existence, with the 
modifications and windings of its curious 
machinery: The amplification of its powers 
of research, and the practicability of the 
reasoning faculty, by its deductions, to ar- 
rive at truth: It has for its scrutiny and ex- 
amination, every material object; neverthe- 
less, ample as this range may be, if we would 
possess this knowledge, we must emphati- 
cally live at home: We must contemplate 
man as a being of thought and conviction, 
so that by the power of argument, having 
his understanding enlightened, as it were, 
by a conclusion of mathematical demonstra- 
tion, he will yield to the power and force of 
truth. Being clothed with this armour, we 
are prepared to enter the lists for successful 
debate, and triumphant argumentation: not 
however, without having a specific depen- 
dence on the Strong for strength, who will, 
if truth be our object, lead us on to certain 
victory. 

We shall now proceed to the second part 
of this Lecture, viz : Eloquence. In ap- 
proaching this theme, we enter a boundless 
field, the mind wandering over the variety 
of scenes which it presents, seems reluctant 
to stop at any single point: Here curiosity 
may indulge in the luxury of speculation: 



211 

Nature presenting its ten thousand objects 
for materials for contemplation: Here philo- 
sophy may revel in the sweets of analysis; 
ascending analytically, descending syntheti- 
cally, into the various phenomena which are 
unfolded by profound research; from whence 
genius may rise and scale the heavens, and, 
like Prometheous, glow amid the lustre of 
its fires. With these rapturous contempla- 
tions, the mind would expand into a variety 
of subjects: we shall, however, confine our- 
selves to assignable limits, and fix at one 
point, make the enquiry, what constitutes the 
orator? Many excellencies combine to form 
the orator: Some are of spontaneous growth, 
others by cultivation : Nature must have a* 
work to do, which none but nature can per- 
form: She must have dealt bountifully with 
his mind, she must have enriched it with the 
powers of vigorous thought, and a suscepti- 
bility of sudden and deep emotion: the orator 
must be enriched with the powers of vigor- 
ous thought. Many are not possessed of it; 
many there are who possess it in a chaotic 
state, undeveloped for want of culture; and 
there are millions whose minds are weak and 
universally impoverished: The mind rises in 
the attributes of excellence, by nice and im- 
perceptible degrees; from the grovelling 



212 

walks of idocy to a sublime elevation, where 
godlike genius dwells. The orator must be 
all nerve, yet all reason; he must be all im- 
pulse, yet all intellect; in a word, thought 
and passion must mingle in his soul, like 
glass and fire in the apocaliptick vision. He 
must be susceptible of sudden and deep 
emotion; for what is strength without excite- 
ment? It presents to the mind a huge de- 
formity, like Falstaff, a mass of loathsome 
bulkiness; or, as the slumbering stagnant 
waters of a mighty lake. Did slumbering 
Achillies gain the victory? No. The ora- 
tor must be fierce, not ferocious; sudden 3 not 
rash; like the roused and renovated ardour 
of Achillian strength, which stretched the 
mighty Hector on the field. The orator 
must be deeply read in the volume of nature: 
Not so much in reference to its philosophy, 
or viewing it with a philosophic eye, but 
with those vivid flashes, which lighten up 
the fires of a poetic eye: From her endless 
resources he must obtain materials for the 
two-fold purpose of embellishment, and de- 
monstrative evidence of moral truth : He 
must be an admirer of all those scenes which 
nature presents in her happiest mood; view- 
ing with rapturous gaze, the various revolu- 
tions of the season, and the planets around 



213 

their orbits: He must gaze on the king of 
day, until the last ray glits through the twi- 
light, and look with an eye of a Raphael on 
the rising beams of the queen of night. He 
must dwell upon nature's terrific aspect un- 
til the genius of glooms and storms takes 
possession of his soul. The rolling thunder 
and the forked lightning, the whirlwind and 
the tornado, must minister to his will; even 
the sun, moon, and stars, must pay him obe- 
siance; nor must he overlook what he consi- 
ders the more abject, or baser parts of crea- 
tion; these should be brought into requisi- 
tion, for the exposition of hated argument 
or neglected truth: In a word, all the varie- 
ties of embellishment by imagery and figure, 
are necessary to arouse the imagination, cap* 
tivate the feelings, and command the opinions 
of an audience. The orator must dip his 
pencil into all the scenery and phenomena 
that nature presents; and by his productions, 
(like Aaron's rod that swallowed up the 
others,) he must command the sympathies, 
unlock the passions, and convince the un- 
derstanding, or man will never bow down to 
him. It is said, nature has her orators; this 
may be true in part, but only so far as seeds 
and soils bear fruit without culture. But 
that fruit will be poisonous and bitter; and 
19* 



214 

it is only by diligent cultivation that we ex- 
pect delicious fruits and fragrant flowers, 
(The author of our being, has given us une- 
quivocal demonstrations of his approbation 
in reference to variety: View the various 
revolutions of the planets in our solar sys- 
tem, the multitude and variety of stars, that 
glit in the heavens; the ever varying appear- 
ance of landscape, of mountain, hill and 
dale; of forests, lakes and rivers; of the in- 
numerable varieties : Quadrupeds, whose 
Jiome is on the soil, and fishes that scale the 
watery deep, and birds that throng the air: 
View again the millions upon millions of hu- 
man beings, and you cannot select an exact 
counterpart of any two, and such is the wis- 
dom and benevolence ot God; that he has 
endowed man with intelligence, which ena- 
bles him to select his friend, among the busy 
millions of the world.) It seems necessa- 
ry then, that the orator should study his art 
This is eloquence: Self-knowledge, an ac- 
quaintance with human nature and a moral 
elevation of soul, are some of the character- 
istics of superiority : Self-knowledge is so 
necessary that no attainment, even of a minor 
character, can be possessed in its absence: 
Perhaps of all other studies, this is the most 
requisite: let him, therefore, mostly consult 



215 

the volumes within, and erect a tribunal of 
justiee to his own powers and capabilities: 
He must be susceptible to the impressions of 
truth: He must consider man as a being of 
thought and conviction, and possessed of in- 
tellect: For his art is to change the opinions, 
and set forth new rules of life; he must evi- 
dence his moral elevation of character, by 
an ingenuousness that carries with it con- 
viction, like the high and holy precepts of 
Christianity, indited by inspiration. Elo- 
quence is the art of persuasion. It is evi- 
dent, that to unsettle deep-rooted opinions 
and prejudices, to change the old rule of life, 
form new habits by another set of rules, is a 
task of no ordinary character. His theme 
must be appropriately suited to surrounding 
circumstances, his language pure and elevat- 
ed, his style chaste and fascinating; his ar- 
gumentation founded on the principles of 
truth. To display the attractive and to avoid 
the repulsive, are the positive and negative 
virtues of oratory. Let him who would at- 
tain a princely walk on the forum, consider 
man as a being, possessed of all the varieties 
of internal emotion; he should, therefore, 
touch every note skilfully, soft as the vibra- 
tions of the lute; yet overpowering as the 
storms on the mountain. Let us, however. 



216 

descend to particulars, in reference to the 
repulsive. Let him who would ascend the 
proud eminence of oratory, avoid the gross 
and palpable errors of the age, — I mean 
plagiarism. You may amuse with the stolen 
sweets of other fragrant flowers, but the 
chillness of disgust will soon cause your 
literary larceny to wither, droop and die. 

Another of the repulsive vices of the age, 
and nearly allied to the former, is affectation. 
This is an attempt to palm off on others, that 
which is not your own; this is so gross and 
inconsistent, that nature itself will revolt at 
its exhibition. The dignity of an orator 
should never compromise with the pratings 
of a parrot, or the mimickry of a monkey, 
unless he intends his productions shall be 
consigned to the shades of eternal oblivion. 

Another and very common error of the 
day, is violent and incessant action; action 
is emphasis to the eye; to make it impres- 
sive, it should be rare and graceful. Inces- 
sant action to every sentiment, renders a 
performance insipid and disgusting; an oc- 
casional rush in river scenery, is delightful; 
but a placid flow gives sublimity to the 
stream. In this as in every other attractive 
virtue, we should not overstep the bounds of 
nature; better, we should never raise a hand, 



217 

than by incessant jerking, render our mem- 
bers liable to dislocation, and by acute an- 
gles, like the zigzag lightning, produce a 
horrid glare, which is sure to arm an audi- 
ence with invincible disgust. Another re- 
pulsive error of no small magnitude, is bois- 
terous speaking; this is an attempt to affect 
passion; it will, however, produce a contra- 
ry result. Shakspeare tells the players, not 
to overstep the modesty of nature. "To see 
a robustuous fellow tare a passion to tatters," 
one would suppose, nature had got into her 
dotage or disrepute, and lost the charms of 
youth. The most moving strains of elo- 
quence ever heard, was one evident exhibi- 
tion of passion, struggling at concealment. 
Like heaven, eloquence emanates from the 
lips, while passion is exhibited on every 
feature of the countenance, and from the 
eye, like the fervid lightning, depicting the 
beauty of the clouds. 

The last error we shall name is one of no 
small magnitude; namely, a quick and inco- 
herent delivery. This is so palpably absurd, 
and so great a foe to eloquence, that if every 
attractive excellence were combined, and 
this repulsive error practised, the aspirant 
will fail to attract in all his performance. We 
should habitually and carefully correct the 



218 

errors of delivery. Early attention to this 
is necessary. If bad habits become confirm- 
ed, we may bid adieu to the high walks of 
oratory. These are some of the repulsive 
errors of the age; and we are not to sup- 
pose, that they issue exclusively from wood, 
and dale, and mountain glen; but also, from 
high and urbane walks, even from the halls 
of science. Resort to the former, and to the 
various walks of life, and you may behold 
sad instances of these vices, numerous as the 
frogs that came up in Egypt, making me- 
lancholy music. Thousands there are, who 
strive for the mastery, and give unremitted 
diligence to the study of the attractive graces 
of elocution; and yet are negligent, in avoid- 
ing those errors which are in direct opposi- 
tion to the graces and models of eloquence. 
Lastly, whoever would win the prize of 
eloquence, must guard the moral habits of 
the soul; for two reasons; — moral purity 
tends to liberalize, if not to invigorate the 
powers of the mind: vice imposes a restraint 
on the mind, and embarrasses its efforts, like 
a weight which increases the friction of a 
machine, without additional power of im- 
pelling. Two spirits commencing life, with 
the same vigour of thought and powers of 
mind, but impelled by contrary passions, 



219 

would rise in the scale of intelligence; the 
pure, by unembarrassed and rapid flight; 
the impure would also rise, but with labo- 
rious struggle; truth in its ascendency would 
have a serious conflict with passions of the 
heart. The moral habits of the soul should 
be guarded; first, because it causes the pas- 
sions to run in a proper channel: and se- 
condly, because it leads to benificent aims 
and benevolent ends. The eloquence of vice 
is a dangerous weapon in the hands of one 
who is moved solely by sordid and selfish 
passion. Numerous have been the sad ex- 
amples of the latter, whose influences have 
left impressions pernicious in their character 
and tendency, and which will not be effaced 
until the final accomplishment of the grand 
millenium day, when righteousness shall 
cover the earth, as the waters do the great 
deep. Finally, whatsoever tilings are true; 
whatsoever things are lovely; whatsoever 
things are just; whatsover things are of good 
report, should be the untiring pursuit of all. 
Then, if there be any praise, it should be 
theirs, and the facilities resulting from the 
exhibition of virtue in this life, will be final- 
ly and fully consummated in that life which 
is to come. 



ERRATA. 

Page 23, lines 6 and 7, from bottom for dependent on, read being inde- 
pendent of. 

Page 31, Lecture on the verb, 1st line for of, read on, 

Page 81, Lecture on Preposition, line 14, supply the word not between 
the words does govern. 

Page 124, line 2, for verb, read adverb. 

Page 135, line 18, for participle, read participial. 

Page 190, line 7, for A, read An. 






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